A Fable William Faulkner | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

…thinking how war and drink are the two things man is never too poor to buy.

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. William Faulkner often used Christian allegory and biblical inferences in his stories and novels and A Fable is one such novel for which he won the Pulitzer Prize of 1954. A Fable is a war novel based on World War I. A war novel or military fiction is a novel about war. It is a novel in which the primary action takes place on a battlefield, or in a civilian setting (or home front), where the characters are preoccupied with the preparations for, suffering the effects of or recovering from war. A Fable is an example of a modern allegory full of Christian symbolism. The story expresses the end of World War 1 in the trenches of France as a result of soldiers’ mutiny. The soldier’s mutiny soon turns into a mass movement inspired forcing the leaders to end the war.

Summary

A Fable is full of allegorical inferences. It talks about the struggle of the Christ-like Corporal Stephan who is widely known as “the corporal” in the novel. He is fighting for the French army in the trenches of World War I.

The novel begins in 1918. Four years after the beginning of the horrific warfare of World War I, a mysterious corporal of the French army convinces his 12 fellow officers to stop fighting. He is tired of killing enemies and seeing his soldiers being killed. He preaches and convinces his fellow officers to opt for peace by simply denying to fight anymore. His disciples promise to follow him, along with “the corporal” they convince Three Thousand other soldiers of their battalion to initiate a military mutiny by refusing to fight. The whole battalion of 3000 soldiers decides to lay down their weapons. Neither they leave the trenches nor they shoot any other shot.

The German soldiers wonder this sudden silence. While they are expected to mercilessly crush these French mutineers, they realize the importance of peace too, and respond in the same manner by dropping their own weapons. The situation turns into a truce and as the French and German soldiers communicate, they realize that the power to put an end to this meaningless fight is in their own hands.

While the foot soldiers and common citizens are happy about the truce, the higher political and military officers feel as if power is slipping out of their hands. They realize that the entire facade of their ruling power depends on their ability to wager the war again. This sudden truce makes them feel as if they are not at all required. The French and German higher officials arrange a meeting and decide to find out the reason for this truce and break it as soon as possible to reinitiate the war.

The allied generals inspecting the french trenches ordered the arrest of all the 3000 soldiers who refused to battle. All the prisoners were brought to Chaulnesmont, a French town. The ruling class spreads propaganda against these soldiers and this creates a mob frenzy. Locals demand execution of these soldiers however, soon the Generalissimo realizes that not all soldiers but the twelve officers leading them are to be blamed. They further come to know that the leader of these twelve soldiers is ‘the corporal’ or Corporal Stephan.

The Generalissimo orders execution of Corporal Stephan who again peacefully accepts the execution showing his adherence to pacifism. After his execution, his dead body is sent to his wife and his sisters who bury him in Vienne-la-Pucelle.

Meanwhile, the German and French soldiers continue to meet with each other in the trenches, and even after the execution of Corporal Stephen, it appears that the war is at its end. But the rulers succeed in causing confusion and one day, artillery from both sides resume while attacking the peaceful congregants. This again resumes the war.

As the conflict resumes, a barrage of artillery destroys the grave of Corporal Stephan and his spirit is freed. The corporal’s spirit then transfers into a British message runner who again starts spreading the message of peace and pacifism. Finally, this British message runner confronts the Generalissimo and defeats him to bring peace.

Alongside this main story, a loosely related story of an injured American racehorse is also being told. The racehorse is injured and about to face execution. However, his rider and trainer are very fond of him and they somehow rescue him from being executed. He then runs away with the horse and travels through various small towns where the horse still continues to win races even though the horse is running only on his three legs. The rider then becomes a sentry. He adopts a new identity and is sent to Europe to join the war.

Analysis

A Fable is highly allegorical. Corporal Stephan is shown christ and he is generally addressed as ‘the corporal’ throughout the novel. Faulkner has blatantly used Christ’s allusion to describe Corporal Stephan. He gathers twelve disciples, he is aged 33 at the time of mutiny and his execution. The night before his execution he had the last supper along with his twelve disciples including the one who betrayed him. Furthermore, the name of his mother is Marya and his lover is a prostitute from the city of Marseilles.

The whole action of the novel parallels with the span of Christian Holy Week, with the triumphant entry, the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, the resurrection. After his execution, his grave is destroyed as a result of German artillery and his spirit resurrects. Even his name Corporal Stephan alludes to Christianity and resembles Saint Stephan who is mentioned in the New Testament and is widely considered as the first martyr in the history of the Christian Church.

The main theme of the novel is Pacifism and strong opposition to the war. The novel finely describes the absurdity and destructivity of war and how some of the power grabbers always want to continue the war. The novel further shows military authority in a bad light.

Faulkner won the Pulitzer Prize of 1954 for this novel and he said that A Fable is "the best work of my life and maybe of my time". He began writing this novel during the last weeks of the Second World War and the Korean War began when he finished this novel. Obviously, he wanted this novel to be a strong satirical pacifist message against war. Another novel with similar themes was Catch 22 which was written by Joseph Heller.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Aeropagitica by John Milton, Summary, Analysis and Background

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. John Milton wrote a strong polemic in 1644 that continues to be one of the most influential philosophical documents in support of the liberty of the press and freedom of speech and expression.

The title of this polemic was Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc'd Printing, to the Parlament of England. John Milton wrote it while opposing licensing and censorship.

Milton was a supporter of Presbyterian against the Royalists and he supported the abolition of Charle’s Ist’ Star Chamber by Presbyterians in 1641. After that, the Presbyterians gained power in the Parliament and they were no longer oppressed and hence, they decided to curb the freedom of the press again as they were worried that the works supporting the King may weaken their position. In addition, the Parliamentarians also wanted to keep control over radical Presbyterians and independents. As a result, Parliament passed the Licensing Order of 1643. This Licensing Order reintroduced almost all the stringent regulations on the press that were imposed by the Star Chamber. However, now the licensing power was in the hands of Parliamentarians.

Despite being an ardent supporter of Presbyterians against the Monarchy, Milton took a stand and chose to oppose the Licensing Order of 1643. He already had confronted Puritans over the issue of Divorce during the time when he wrote the four Doctrines on Divorce. He had suffered the ill effects of censorship and thus he offered his philosophical and reason-based opposition to the Licensing Order of 1643.

While the title of this work suggests that it was a speech that John Milton presented to the Parliament of England, it was not a speech. Rather, Milton printed pamphlets of this work and distributed them openly while directly confronting the Licensing Order according to which every author was required to get a pre-publication license before publishing their work.

Summary

Milton begins Aeropagitica by complimenting the Parliament for overcoming the tyranny of Charles Ist. Then he defines the benefits of constructive criticism over false flattery. He then wishes the Parliament to follow the voice of reason and to support truth and upright judgment.

Milton then discusses the history of the licensing system. He mentions that the ancient civilizations including Greeks and Romans never practiced licensing. He mentions that there were cases when blasphemous or libelous books were burnt and their authors were punished but that happened only after the production of such texts when these were rejected, not before it. He further sheds light on the history of licensing of the press by mentioning that the first time licensing was used to curb the freedom of speech and expression was by Catholics during the periods of Inquisition.

English Parliament was full of prominent Protestants and there were strong conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in England. Milton pointed out how the Catholic Popes turned into licensing tyrants during the inquisition. He mentioned how heretical books were prohibited. He also mentioned how not only heretical but books unfavorable to friars were also prohibited and hence, there could be no positive criticism.

Milton then discusses the objective of the Licensing Order and how it will fail to achieve the objective. He says that the order is meant to stop the availability of bad books but even the Bible had been historically limited and censored to readers for containing offensive descriptions of blasphemy and wicked men. He further says that even if such books are censored to restrict the spread of ‘infection,’ those men who have already read them will continue to spread the message through other recreational means. Hence, the order will prove to be futile. Milton further points out that it will require huge manpower to correctly check every book before it is published that it will contain no offensive message. Milton suggests that better would be to let any book be published and if the readers point out and complain about the content of that book, then it can be prohibited and its copy can be destroyed. He says that licensing books cannot possibly prevent societal corruption as there will be other means to spread the same infection. "If we think to regulate printing, thereby to rectifie manners, we must regulate all recreations and pastimes, all that is delightful to man".

Milton points out that even if there are men capable to check and make judgments about censoring a book even before it is published, they may commit mistakes. Furthermore, he points out that the basis of censoring will remain subjective and arbitrary judgment of the licenser. He says that it will be dishonoring and derogatory to those authors who produce their works with genuinely good intentions.

Milton says that this Licensing Order is akin to believing that only the Government has a monopoly over truth and understanding which is not a good sign for the future of England. He says that this Licensing Order will promote conformity and laziness. He says that such an order will hinder the discovery and progress of truth by governmental biases and prejudices. He suggests that there will always be more truth to be found and revealed than we already know. Milton says that if there is God’s plan, governmental licensing order will interrupt it as it is a power to silence others through whom God may suggest new ways.

In this essay, Milton strongly opposed the Licensing Order that made it mandatory for all publishers to get permission from the government before publishing any work. However, Milton didn’t put forth the libertarian idea of the right to free speech and expression as he says that after a book or work of literature is published and it is found to be offensive, blasphemous, or libelous, it can be completely destroyed and the author and publisher can be punished by the authority. In a way, Milton’s only point is to let all sorts of works be published freely to be evaluated afterward if they require any censorship, he strongly opposes prior censorship of literary works. However, he shows a degree of tolerance to all sorts of authors as he says,

“I mean not tolerated Popery, and open superstition, which as it extirpates all religions and civil supremacies, so itself should be extirpated, provided first that all charitable and compassionate means be used to win and regain the weak and the misled.”

While Milton was a supporter of Presbyterians and he vociferously supported Parliamentarians against the Royalists during the civil war, he was at odd against the Parliament during the time when this Licensing Order was issued. He already had argued against the Parliament for individual rights in his Doctrines of Divorce and he experienced the effects of censorship by himself. The Puritan society of England resisted Milton’s revolutionary ideas but later on, they were incorporated in case of Divorce as the Westminster Assembly of Faith allowed divorce to be legal in case of adultery and abandonment in 1650. On the other hand, his opposition against the Licensing Order didn’t win immediate support as the Licensing Order continued till 1695.

So this is it about Aeropagitica. We will continue to discuss other major works of John Milton. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Requiem for a Nun by William Faulkner | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Requiem For a Nun is the sequel of William Faulkner’s earlier novel Sanctuary and it tells the story of Temple Drake after she returns from Sanctuary in Paris. We learned that she was abducted and raped by Pompey who kept her in a brothel. Being impotent, Pompey forced a fellow criminal Red to exploit Temple under his watch. Temple was too frightened of Pompeye and she had guilt feeling that she was actually enjoying her being exploited to some extent. She realizes that she is in love with Red but before she could strengthen her relationship with Red, Pompeye kills him. She had written some letters to Red that were collected by his younger brother Pete who used them to further blackmail and exploit Temple.

The title of this sequel contains ‘Nun’ which can refer to either someone who sacrifices herself to save the sinners, and it has also been used as an Elizabethan era slang meaning a prostitute.

Characters of Requiem for a Nun

Nancy Mannigoe is a black drug addict and occasional prostitute whom Temple Drake hires as her nursemaid to take care of her kids. Temple Drake has been married to Gowan Stevens and is now Mrs. Temple Stevens. Eight years ago, because of the irresponsible behavior of Gowan, Temple fell in hands of a bunch of bootleggers and criminals and was forced to live a short life as a prostitute and sex slave of a criminal named Popeye. Popeye is now dead. Gowan Stevens marries Temple after that out of a sense of responsibility. The two have settled back in the well-to-do society of Jefferson and now they have two kids. Gavin Stevens is the uncle of Gowan Stevens. Pete is the younger brother of Red, whom Temple once loved during her days in the brothel of Miss Reba.

Summary of Requiem for a Nun

The story begins with Nancy Mannigoe facing a trial for murdering Temple’s six months old daughter. Nancy is found guilty and is sentenced to death. However, Gavin Stevens, uncle, and guardian of Gowan Stevens aren’t satisfied. He feels that Temple is withholding some information about the murder of his six-month-old granddaughter.

Eight years ago, Temple returned from Sanctuary in Paris to Jefferson in Yoknapatawpha county along with her father. She suffered extreme torture and rape by Popeye who while himself was impotent and unable to have sex, used other things to rape her, like a corncob. He further forced Temple to live in a brothel and made her have sex with one of his fellow criminals Red, in front of him. Temple couldn’t fight and gradually, she started liking her life in the brothel. She even fell in love with Red. The hard events had such an impression on her that she offered false testimony in court to save Popeye because of which Lee Goodwin was sentenced to death for the murder of Tommy, and was later lynched. Tommy was the only one of the bootleggers who along with Ruby Lamar, tried to protect Temple. Tommy was shot dead by Popeye while he was trying to safeguard Temple. Later on, when Popeye felt that Temple might have fallen in love with Red, he murdered Red too. While Temple was recovered by her father from the brothel and was taken to Sanctuary for treatment, Popeye was caught for some crime that he might not have actually committed and was sentenced to death.

After her return from Sanctuary, Gown Stevens married her as he couldn’t face the guilt of causing all the mishaps and mistreatment that Temple was forced to go through because of his careless behavior. With time, Temple and Gowan both were recovering from their dark past and now they were a happy couple with two children. Temple gave birth to a girl child six months ago and she decided to take the help of Nancy Mannigoe as a nursemaid to keep care of her kids. However, Temple had other reasons too to appoint Nancy. Nancy was a black drug addict and occasional prostitute. Temple chose her as she was the only one in her home with whom Temple could discuss and share experiences of her life in the brothel of Miss Reba. Temple was yet not able to forget her past and in a way, she had some sweet memories of those times that she didn’t want to give away.

On the other hand, Red’s younger brother Pete finds some letters written by Temple to his dead brother. He comes to know that Temple was in love with Red and decides to blackmail her for some money. He visits Jefferson and meets Temple, threatening her of revealing her secret love for Red to her family, and asks for monetary help. Temple is afraid and somewhat impressed by Pete’s threatening attitude. She again finds her passion in Pete and not only decides to offer him what he asked for but to elope with him too.

Gowan’s uncle Gavin knew Nancy for a long and he knew that she was trying to overcome her drug addiction. He finds it unlikely that Nancy will murder such a cute kid for whom she was chosen as a nursemaid. He decides to defend her in court and finds that Temple is withholding some information about the murder. Gavin confronts Temple in absence of Gowan and asks her to inform him exactly how her daughter was killed. Temple says that Nancy was neither mentally ill nor she had criminal intent, yet she murdered the kid. Temple further says that there were some reasons for which Nancy killed the baby. Gavin implores Temple to say more but Temple decides to avoid answering anymore and goes away to California on an extended trip.

Now when Gavin knows that Nancy wasn’t wholly responsible for the murder of the kid, he tries to save her with more intent but fails. Just one week before Nancy’s scheduled execution, Temple returns from her long trip. She arranges a meeting with Gavin in absence of Gowan. She drugs Gowan with sleeping pills, which he dodges without her knowledge. Believing that Gowan is in deep sleep, he calls Gavin to discuss Nancy and the murder of her six-month-old daughter. She tells Gavin that though Nancy did kill her baby but she also had a hand in that murder and wants to help Gavin in saving Nancy’s life. Gavin says that it is already too late and she must directly visit the Governor of Mississippi to appeal and urge him to stop Nancy’s execution. Gowan overhears all this conversation and vows to know all the truth.

The day before Nancy’s execution, Temple visits Governor’s office at Jefferson, Mississippi. She sees that Governor is sitting in the officer but his face is on the opposite side of her. She decides to confess and says that before her daughter’s murder, she had already planned to leave her husband and kids and run away with Pete, the younger brother of her former lover Red. She informs him that she met Red during the days of her abduction when she was forced to live in a brothel. She informed how Popeye forced her to have sex with Red in front of him and later on, she started liking and loving Red. When Popeye came to know this, he murdered Red and Temple was devastated. Though she returned from Sanctuary in Paris to lead a normal life in Yoknapatawpha county, she could never forget her experiences of being an abductee of Popeye and her days in the brothel. Later on, Red’s younger brother Pete visited her with some letter that she wrote to Red. He started blackmailing her. Pete reminded her of Red and her old days. She was impressed by his dominating attitude and felt love for him and proposed to run away with him. Nancy was too close to her and she came to know about her plan to leave her family. Nancy tried everything possible to stop her from eloping with Pete and while doing so, she smothered her baby as a final attempt to stop Temple from running away, while Nancy knew it will cost her own life. Temple urges the Governor to stop the execution of Nancy but to her surprise, she comes to know that the Governor had already rejected the clemency appeal of Nancy and had left the office much before she visited there.

She soon comes to know that the person to whom she confessed her guilt was none other than her own husband Gowan. Gowan then faces her and says that he too is sorry for initiating the chain of events that led her to the current state, had he not shown irresponsibility eight years ago, Temple might not have been abducted and raped by Popeye. Gowan says that the past is unchangeable and over and goes out. Temple remains there, standing and worrying about her own salvation.

The next day, before her execution, Temple and Gavin go to meet Nancy. Temple tells her how she tried her best to save her by trying to confess in front of the Governor. She says that Nancy was not solely responsible for the murder of her daughter. Nancy says that now Temple must live to face the consequences of her actions. Nancy praises God and extols the virtues of suffering while accepting her execution.

This is it for today. We have discussed the whole story of Temple Drake composed in the novels Sanctuary and Requiem for a Nun. We will continue to discuss other works of William Faulkner. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.