The Relic by John Donne | Summary, Analysis, Explanation

 The Relic by John Donne | Summary, Analysis, Explanation

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Relic is one of the most intriguing and intelligently carved metaphysical poems of John Donne which can be interpreted in several ways. The poem is full of conceit, intelligently put forth wit and imaginative metaphors. The poem has two sets of intelligently put comparisons or conceits. It is suggested that John Donne wrote this poem with his friend and benefactor Mrs. Magdalen Herbert in his mind as he mentions the name Magdalen in the poem itself as the poet’s platonic lover. However, The Relic, as the name suggests is specifically a spiritual love poem with a deep religious touch. Hence, the comparison appears more with the biblical Saint Magdalen who was the first to meet Christ on the morning of the original Easter in a garden near the tomb from where he rose from the dead.

In a way, the dead poet compares himself and his beloved as Christ and Lady Magdalen in future prospects. The poet is already dead in the poem and he is in his grave.

The Title The Relic

The Relic was first published in John Donne’s collection Songs and Sonnets which contain mostly secular poems. This poem may also be interpreted as a secular love poem that has nothing to do with religion. However, right from the title of the beginning to its end, John Donne used strong and effective religious imagery. Relic is something that remains even after someone’s death and serves as the memento of that person. Religious relics of saints and great people often become venerated items of spiritual importance. Often such religious relics are attached with some miracles. In the poem too, the poet talks about such relics that may become spiritually significant and he offers the list of miracles that his and his beloved’s relics already have performed.

Structure of the Poem

The poem has three stanzas with 11 lines in each stanza. The lines are in varied iambic meters with no definite pattern. The 5^th and 7^th lines are shorter than others in all three stanzas.

Most of the lines are in iambic pentameter but there are many exceptions. The rhythm scheme of The Relic is aabbcddceee. The poet is dead who tells his love story after death as a first-person narrator and this provides an outworld feeling to the poem, yet, the poem appears lively and relatable. The poet suggests that his love for his beloved was so pure that in the future they will be revered as saints, miraculous lovers to be worshipped by people. The poet laughs about such possibilities as he says that he doesn’t believe in such miracles. Yet, he offers some insight into his relationship with his lover with whom he was engraved.

Summary of The Relic

When my grave is broke up again

Some second guest to entertain,

(For graves have learn'd that woman head,

To be to more than one a bed)

And he that digs it, spies

A bracelet of bright hair about the bone,

Will he not let'us alone,

And think that there a loving couple lies,

Who thought that this device might be some way

To make their souls, at the last busy day,

Meet at this grave, and make a little stay?

The poem begins with the dead poet describing a situation after his death. A long time has passed and it is presumed that his body has been decomposed. Thus, people dig his grave to use it again to bury a dead body of a woman who recently died. However, the poet’s dead body wasn’t alone in that grave but along with him, his beloved was also buried in the same grave. The gravedigger when breaks his grave, observes a bone wrapped in a bracelet or ring of bright white hair. The grave digger assumes that this must be a grave of a loving couple who died together and were buried together so that they may remain together after death. The poet posits whether the gravedigger leaves them alone, or will he introduce the new guest, a ghost or a dead body of a woman in that grave. The poet suggests that women are often considered to share their bed and man with other women. Here, the poet is actually not castigating women as promiscuous, rather he suggests that men are promiscuous and can have more than one woman in their bed. However, the poet is in true love with the woman he was buried with. So he wishes the gravedigger to leave them alone and not force a new guest or ghost into the same grave.

The limb bone of the poet and the bracelet of hair of his beloved are the two relics. The grave is too old and it wasn’t supposed to have any remnant of the dead bodies buried in them. Yet, the hair is Bright as lively and the bone is intact, this is a miracle as the poet suggests.

John Donne employed double alliteration in Line 6 and it makes it the punch line of the first stanza.

“A bracelet of bright hair about the bone” (br, br, b, b, b)

It is a device by which the loving couple declares their loyalty even after death. John Donne employed a deep conceit here as he compares his bone and his lover’s hair with that of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere. In the 12^th century, it was rumored that the grave of King Arthur and his wife Queen Guinevere was found at Glastonbury, England. In that grave at Glastonbury, a presumed bone of a limb was found wrapped in a ring of yellow hair. While that hair appeared healthy, when the monks tried to pick that hair they turned into ashes.

John Donne uses that famous episode of King Arthur’s grave to offer conceit in the poem. However, he declares that he doesn’t believe in such miracles. Thus, he is actually refuting the rumor that the grave at Glastonbury was that of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere. He is passing a negative judgment against superstitions and miracles.

If this fall in a time, or land,

Where mis-devotion doth command,

Then he that digs us up, will bring

Us, to the Bishop, and the King,

To make us relics; then

Thou shalt be a Mary Magdalen, and I

A something else thereby;

All women shall adore us, and some men;

And since at such time, miracles are sought,

I would have that age by this paper taught

What miracles we harmless lovers wrought.

In the second stanza, the poet attains a highly satirical tone. He continues to discuss the relics, the limb bone, and the bracelet of hair. In normal times when Reason supersedes belief, these relics will be ignored. However, if the remains of the poet and his beloved are found in such a time period when people pay less attention to reason and are engaged in devoting themselves to wrong things or perception, then the gravedigger will consider these relics as important. He will then inform the Bishop and the King about these relics, the hidden spiritual treasure that was just found.

In these lines, it appears that John Donne is criticizing Catholicism as a mis-devotion. The rumor of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere’s relics gained momentum during the Catholic years of England. However, John Donne is critical of both sects, Catholicism and Protestantism.

“Us, to the Bishop, and the King,”

He is anti-Catholic as he mentioned the supremacy of the Bishop. He is criticizing Anglicans too who maintained that the King is the supreme leader.

In such times of Mis-Devotion, the poet and his beloved, recognized by the limb bone and the hair lock will be considered as relics of some great saints of love. In the next line, Donne brings upon the conceit as he compares his beloved with Mary Magdalen, the Saint who was the first person to meet Christ after he took rebirth on the original morning of Easter. She was the witness of Christ’s crucifixion and burial and later on, she became the witness of Christ’s resurrection. Mary Magdalen was a sinner, a prostitute who later became an ardent follower of Christ and attained sainthood.

Since the poet is comparing his mistress to Saint Magdalen, he indirectly suggests that he will be considered no less than the Christ in such times of Mis-Devotion. However, people seek miracles and magic from such great saints. The poet wonders what sort of miracles he and his beloved can show while he knows that miracles don’t happen??

First, we loved well and faithfully,

Yet knew not what we loved, nor why,

Difference of sex no more we knew

Than our guardian angels do;

Coming and going, we

Perchance might kiss, but not between those meals;

Our hands ne'er touched the seals,

Which nature, injured by late law, sets free

These miracles we did; but now 'alas,

All measure and all language, I should pass,

Should I tell what a miracle she was.

In the third stanza, the poet suggests the miracles that he and his beloved really performed during their lifetime. The poet doesn’t believe in our worldly miracles but he suggests that what he and his beloved suffered and did were no less than miracles.

The first miracle that the couple performed was to love well, and remain loyal and faithful to each other. While they were in deep love, they never came to know, why they loved each other or for what. That is, they were in self-less love with no expectations from each other. The second miracle was that they didn’t love like men and women or of different sex. That is, their love was spiritual, it was asexual, it was not carnal affection. They love each other as if they were angels. He mentions that they might have kissed each other as coursey during their meals together. But they never hold their hands together nor broke the seals that maintain virginity. The poet mentions that all these were no less than miracles as true spiritual love is hard to attain.

In the last lines, John Donne hints that he not only compared his lover with Saint Mary Magdalen, but he was also remembering his benefactor and friend Mrs. Magdalen Herbert. He says that now when his beloved is no more to experience (while the poet himself is also dead), he has no words or language to describe how great, how miraculous his beloved was. This nuptial and Platonic love defies description and is beyond the powers of language and communication.

The Relic is one of the most complex poems by John Donne. In this poem, he describes his philosophy of spiritual love. He brings upon the themes of death, love, and religion. He is satirical against the superstitions and miracles, and the ills of religion. He makes jokes about superstitions and rumors related to King Arthur and Queen Guinevere and Saint Magdalen. While raising these grave serious issues in a poetic entertaining and delighting manner, John Donne succeeds in expressing his admiration for his benefactor and supporter Mrs. Magdalen Herbert.

This is it for today. We will discuss another noteworthy poem by John Donne in the upcoming video. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Song Go and Catch a Falling Star by John Donne | Summary, Analysis, Explanation

Go and Catch a Falling Star by John Donne | Summary, Analysis, Explanation

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Go and Catch a Falling Star is one of the rare poems by John Donne in which he didn’t use much-exaggerated hy[erbole extended metaphors or conceit.

John Donne intended it to be read and recited as a song and that is why he titled it as Song. Unlike his other love poems in which he has praised his beloved comparing them with extremes (like in The Sun Rising), this song appears to be a complaint against women as the poet says that it is impossible to find a flawless woman. John Donne says that it is impossible to find a beautiful faithful woman. He says that either all beautiful women are faithless or they are ugly and not worth considering.

Structure of the Poem

Song-Go and Catch a Falling Star has three stanzas having nine lines each. The first six lines make a sestet while the last three lines make a triplet. The rhyming scheme is consistent throughout the song and it is ABABCCDDD. The poem has a humorous tone. The poet is annoyed by the inconstancy and faithlessness of women but he has adjusted with that. He complains about it in a light, hilarious and entertaining manner.

John Donne didn’t apply conceit in this poem. Yet, there is a comparison between some strange improbable things and acts to finding an honest beautiful woman of the poet’s liking. The poet is singing this song to a female opponent, challenging her for some tasks.

Summary of Go and Catch a Falling Star

Go and catch a falling star,

Get with child a mandrake root,

Tell me where all past years are,

Or who cleft the devil's foot,

Teach me to hear mermaids singing,

Or to keep off envy's stinging,

And find

What wind

Serves to advance an honest mind.

John Donn begins the first stanza with an imperative order ‘Go and Catch a Falling Star,’ that is, go and fetch a meteorite, which obviously is an impossible task. However, Donne suggests it as if it is possible. Then he talks about the Mandrak Root. In some mythologies and Fables, Mandrake took some human attributes. In some old drawings, Mandrake's root is depicted in either male or female human form. So in the second line, Donne asks to impregnate a mandrake root, have a child with it. The discussion of mandrake root continues as the mandrake plant bears flowers that turn into fruits known as the ‘Satan-Apple.’ Donne asks about who clefts the Devil’s or Satan’s foot. Also, it is impossible to know about the origin of time, where the time comes from and where does it go. But Donne orders to tell him about all the past years.

In the fifth line again, he continues with mythology and asks how the mermaids sing, how they can be heard. Mermaids are mythical creatures with the upper bodies of beautiful voluptuous women but instead of legs, mermaids have fishtails. Mermaids are not real, and hence it is also an impossible task. The last task given by Donne is to keep envy away, which is again impossible because envy is a part of human nature.

The poet believes that all these tasks explained above are impossible to achieve. Yet in the last three lines, he says that these tasks may be possible, the more difficult or impossible task is to find a beautiful honest woman.

If thou be'st born to strange sights,

Things invisible to see,

Ride ten thousand days and nights,

Till age snow white hairs on thee,

Thou, when thou return'st, wilt tell me,

All strange wonders that befell thee,

And swear,

No where

Lives a woman true, and fair.

In the second stanza, Donne continues to offer some seemingly impossible tasks, though they are not as extreme as those he mentioned in the first stanza. The poet says that if you have superhuman qualities, if you can see that is invisible to normal human eyes, if you can perceive the nature beyond perceivable, then travel to the far places of the Universe for ten thousand days and night. And after returning, when you will grow snow-white hairs as you will be aged, you must come to me and inform me about all the strange things and new world that you explored. Donne uses ‘thou’ which means you in repetition in the 14^th line as if he is teasing his female opponent. The poet believes that women are not faithful and lack constancy. Thus, he doubts his listener, the female opponent, being a woman will make her promise and return to tell him all the wonders she is expected to explore. He further says that even if she returns and reports to him, she will swear and inform him that there is no place where there lives a beautiful woman who is true and trustworthy.

Donne uses fair with true, what he means is that a woman who is not very beautiful can be true and trustworthy, but it is impossible to find a beautiful faithful woman.

In this stanza, John Donne is parodying the poetic theme of Eternal Love. He says that eternity is possible, eternal love is not because there is no true, trustworthy beautiful woman.

At face value, this poem appears a teasing love song, but in deep, John Donne is actually depicting and supporting the Age of Exploration. He is not only singing for the female opponent of his song, but for the sea voyagers and explorers too.

If thou find'st one, let me know,

Such a pilgrimage were sweet;

Yet do not, I would not go,

Though at next door we might meet;

Though she were true, when you met her,

And last, till you write your letter,

Yet she

Will be

False, ere I come, to two, or three.

In the third stanza, Donne continues to support his belief that there is no trustworthy beautiful woman. Yet, he appears convinced that his opponent may find a place where lives a true and beautiful woman during her exploration. She may inform him about that woman on her return and he will consider it as a pilgrimage because if there is such a place where lives a woman who is beautiful and truly hones, then to visit such a place is no less important than a pilgrimage.

However, Donne says that while he will believe his opponent's report of a beautiful true woman, but he will not go there to visit and meet such a beautiful trustworthy woman. He gives his reason for opting not to visit and meet such a lady. He says that even if the opponent offers him the true report, even if she actually found a beautiful woman who is trustworthy, it will take time for her to return back. During that time, because of the inconstancy of women, that true lady will also fall to corruption and deceit. The poet says that he will deny visiting such a supposedly trustworthy woman because a woman may sell her honesty and become dishonest by the time he reaches her.

This poem is different from other noteworthy Love Poems by John Donne. He appears to be a misogynist here. Yet, he berates the dishonesty of women in such a beguiling manner that his complaint also appears endearing. John Donne hasn’t used conceit in this poem but he managed to provide some enthralling comparisons. His choice of words and use of fables, mythologies, and the current happenings of his time fills this poem with knowledge. He mentions the exploration age of the Elizabethan era when sea voyagers were trying to find new routes to the Americas and East India for the hunt for gold and spices. This poem becomes immortal because exploration never ceases. During the 16^th century, people were celebrating the discovery of the New World, today people are excited and enthusiastic about space exploration and it will continue.

So this is it for today. We have discussed the summary of Song Go Catch a Falling Star with a proper and full explanation. We will continue to cherish a few more marvelous poems by John Donne. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

James Fenimore Cooper || Leatherstocking Series

 Hello and welcome to the Discourse.

Today we are going to discuss one of the most famous American romanticists James Fenimore Cooper. He was born on 15^th September 1789 and he died on 14^th September 1851. Cooper was enrolled in the Yale University for his degree but he was a notorious prankster and was expelled in his third year without completing his degree.

He wrote a number of social, political, and historical fiction and non-fiction novels. His daughter Susan Fennimore Cooper was also an author who wrote for women's suffrage. Her only novel was Elinor Wylkys.

The most famous works of James Cooper include The Spy, an espionage tale set in the American Revolutionary War period, and historical novel series of the frontier period known as the Leatherstocking Tales. Leatherstocking Tales introduced the very popular and appreciated American frontier scout icon character Natty Bumppo, a Romantic character who got immense success with the novel The Last of the Mohicans.

Cooper was equally admired and criticized by the bigwigs of the literary world. Henry David Thoreau was inspired by Cooper’s individualistic theme and ideas of writings. D.H Lawrence believed Cooper’s work is lovely, mature, and sensitive art. Cooper was the first American Novelist who introduced African, African-American & Native American characters in his books.

Victor Hugo termed Cooper as the “greatest novelist of the century outside France.”

Mark Twain, who was a staunch realist and somehow always criticized romanticism, criticized Cooper’s novels too in his essay “Fernimore Cooper’s Literary Offences.”

James Cooper joined the Navy in 1809 and he got married in 1811. Chance led him to experiment with fiction which became the line of work in which he was to achieve immense fame.

His first work was Precaution, published in the year 1820. It was more like an imitation of contemporary domestic novels like those of Amelia Opied or Jane Austin and it didn’t gain much success.

He was reading a novel to his wife and at some time, he got irritated and claimed that he can write a better novel. So his wife challenged him to write a novel for her. And that was the beginning of his great career as an author who became one of the most read romantic American writers. He published Precaution anonymously.

2) The Spy; A Tale of the Neutral Ground. It was published in the year 1821. It was his first successful novel. The story is based on American Revolutionary War and tells the story of a peddler named Harvey Birch who is suspected of being a spy of the British crown. However, in the end, it is revealed that he, not a spy but a patriot.

Cooper’s most famous works were the series the Leatherstocking Tales. It was a series of five novels. The storyline of each of these five novels is set in the 18^th century. Each of the novels features Natty Bumppo, an American Frontier Scout whom the European-American settlers recognized as ‘Leatherstocking, ‘the trapper’, and ‘the pathfinder’. Native Americans recognized Natty Bumppo as ‘Deerslayer’, La Longe Carbine’, and ‘Hawkeye.’

The Leatherstocking series was published from 1827-1841. These were romantic novels and Natty Bumppo was a character representing ideals of Individualism with very high morals.

Natty Bumppo is the child of white parents who was raised by Native Americans of the Delaware Tribe and he was educated by Moravian Christians. As an adult, he becomes a fearless warrior who can use many weapons and his favorite weapon is the long rifle. His foster brother is Chingachgook and his nephew is Uncas who are native Indians.

So Natty Bumppo is a mixture of various cultures, he represents a brave honest, larger-than-life character, and hence Natty Bumppo became the model for idealistic American folk hero. He is known as the romancer of the forest, prairie, and the sea.

Such stories as The Pilot, The Deerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Pioneer, and The Prairie dealing as they do for the most part with the clash of the new civilization with primitive Young America, have no peers in the romantic fiction.

The five novels of the Leatherstocking series were

1) The Pioneers: It was the first of the Leatherstocking series. It was published in the year 1823. The subtitle of The Pioneers is “The Sources of the Susquehanna: A Descriptive Tale. It is a historical novel set in 1793.

2) The Last of the Mohicans: it was published in the year 1826 and its subtitle is ‘A Narrative of 1757.” It depicts the was between French forces and the Native Americans with British characters involved. It is set in 1757.

3) The Prairie: It was published in 1827 and the subtitle of The Prairie is ‘A Tale.’ It was set in 1804, that is, the storyline is based on real events of the time during 1804.

4) The Pathfinder: It was published in the year 1827 and the subtitle of this novel was The Inland Sea. Its storyline is based on the historical events during 1758-1759.

5) The Deerslayer: The subtitle is The First Warpath. It was published in the year 1841 and it is set in 1740-1755.

So this is all about James Fenimore Cooper. He inspired other Romanticists including Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne. We will continue to discuss other literary gems of America in the upcoming editions. Please stay connected to the Discourse.

Thanks and Regards!

Five Stages of Elizabethan Drama | Historical Background and Origin | Summary of Gorboduc

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. We will move now to discuss one of the most vivid section of English literature, the Elizabethan Drama.

First, we will discuss the nature of Drama, its historical background, and origin and then we will go through the works of some of the greatest dramatists of all times that belonged to the Elizabethan Era of English literature.

Drama, Definition, Types, and Effect

Drama can be defined as an articulate story presented in action. The story must be articulated or presented in spoken words and it must be in action too. Unlike pantomime, it is spoken and it includes the act of mimicry.

The story must be articulate as presented in spoken words and it must be in action too. Thus it includes acting. A drama can be effective or it can be ineffective. For a drama to be effective, it must have some conflict. There must be some clash between man and his surroundings or situations.

If that conflict is a trivial one, presented with a sense of slapstick humor, it is known as FARCE.

If the conflict is a serious and important one, and the drama ends happily for the hero and heroine, it is known as COMEDY. A comedy includes quaint circumstances, unusual characters, and witty remarks.

If the conflict is serious but the drama has an unhappy ending, it is known as TRAGEDY In such Dramas, the protagonist has a Tragic flaw that leads to his downfall.

A MELODRAMA is an exaggerated drama, it is sensational and it appeals directly to the senses of audience, Just like a Farce, its conflict is trivial.

A Musical Drama includes music and dances too.

Historical Background of Drama

The origins of drama can be found in Ancient religions including the Greeks, Indian, Chinese & Egyptian religions. The drama was an essential part of Greek religious ceremonies associated with Dionysus, God of life and death, God of wine, and the God of fertile Earth.

Greek Theater

In Ancient Greece, there used to be groups of 12-50 people who used to sing dithyrambs, ancient Greek hymns to praise and please Dionysus. These groups were known as the chorus. These groups used to compete with each other. Initially, they didn’t have any leader or Hero.

By 532 BC, Thespis arouse as the leader of the chorus and he became the first recorded actor of ancient Greek drama.

Gradually mew playwrights and techniques of acting were developed and we had some great Greek dramatists such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euphorian, Euripides, and many more.

Drama in Roman Civilization

Romans continued the culture of Greek drama but now they had varied subjects and were not limited to religious subjects. They were Farce and they included clowns performing obscenities, poetic meter, mocking, and other nuances, The influential Roman dramatists of Roman Farce included Novius and Pomponius.

Greeks and Romans used to have architectural structures for the performances of Dramas that included Theatron, Skene, Orchestra, Acoustics.

Dramas in Old and Middle English Period

Roman dramas were corrupt forms of Greek dramas and they were further corrupted by the end of late Roman Empire.

As Christianity arose and the Church got hold of power, all dramas and theaters were banned and dismantled. However, the Church soon realized that to suppress drama is akin to suppress laughter and tears and it is not workable. So, the Church started utilizing drama for its own purpose. This is the reason why it is a common and acceptable saying that “the cradle of the drama rested on the altar.”

1^st stage of English Drama

The Church promoted religious forms of dramas to proselytize common people and to spread doctrines of the Bible.

Miracles and Mysteries

Initially, Gospel stories were depicted by a series of living pictures in which the performers acted the story but didn’t speak. Gradually, the actors started dialogues and they acted their parts.

Most of the playwrights during the Old English period were written by the clergy and hence they were in Latin or in Norman or vernacular French language. These plays were either Mysteries or Miracles.

Mysteries were plays whose stories were taken directly from the Bible and other scriptures while Miracles were the stories from the lives of saints and martyrs.

The drama of the middle English period included a juggler, a jester, and a tumbler to offer modest hilarity and amusement. Debate poetry such as The Owl and the Nightingale promoted drama.

The Church used drama to promote religion and the Mass were the occasions when Mysteries and Miracles were played in the Church.

The first Miracle that was depicted was Lucas de Santa Katherina.

2^nd Stage

Mysteries and Miracles were not only helping in the spread of Christianity, these were the only source of mass amusement during those times. People started to gather in large numbers just to watch Miracles and Mysteries. So, in the fourteenth century, the Church decided to entrust some guilds to perform dramas in Market-place outside of the Churchyard. Each guild used to perform a play representing their particular trades. For example, the guild of fishermen used to perform the Flood, a mystery based on the Bible.

Since the times of Greeks, Masks were used in drama to offer allegorical essence. A monstrous head with movable jaws was used to represent Hell or Satan. The actors used different symbols to represent other aspects. The white Papal was used to represent God and godliness.

Gradually, Miracles became more popular, they were more successful than Mysteries. Each big town used to have its own cycle of plays to be performed annually. The plays were all religious in nature and they were used to be performed on scaffolds in open space. The Church was losing its grip and by the end of the Thirteenth-century Guilds were becoming more active in dramas. There were four main cycles of Dramas, the York cycle, Towneley Cycle, Chester Cycle, and Coventry Cycle.

The York Cycle

York cycle consisted of 48 plays that have been preserved till the present day. They were written in Northumbrian dialect and were staged in the York town. The first play dealt with the creation of the World and Fall of Lucifer, the next three plays showed Fall of Man, and then Story of Cain and Abel, 8^th and 9^th plays dealt with the making of Arc, the Flood, and so on.

The Towneley Plays

These were performed near Wakefield and hence are also known as Wakefield plays. Five of the plays of the Towneley cycle were similar to that of the York cycle. The Towneley cycle consisted of 32 plays starting with the Creation of World and ending with the Hanging of Judas.

The Chester Cycle

There were 25 plays in Chester cycle and these were more serious plays. The series started with the Fall of Lucifer and then, the creation of World, Fall of Man, and so on.

The Coventry Cycle

It had 42 plays and these were divided in two parts and were used to be played in alternate years. The first part contained 28 plays to be played first and the second contained the next 14 plays to be played in the second year. The last performance of the Coventry cycle was done in 1591.

3^rd Stage

In the third stage, the drama was parting ways from religious scriptures. Mysteries and Miracles were replaced by Moralities and Interludes.

Morality Plays

Moralities were serious plays, didactic, dealing in allegory and abstractions. The characters of Moralities used to represent Sin, Grace, Repentance, Virtues etc. Hero of Moralities always depicted mankind.

The first morality play was Play of Lord’s Prayer. Other popular moralities included Magnificence and Necromancer. Moralities completely replaced Mysteries and Miracles during the reign of Henry VI. The Church had lost power. The characters of moralities were allegorical, symbolical or abstract. One of the earliest moralities was The Castle of Perseverance.

The most popular Morality play was Everyman in which God sends Death to summon every creature to give an account of their life, their good deeds, and the bad, in this world. Everyman contained allegorical characters and at the end, a Doctor explains the conclusion.

The Interludes

The interludes were the last step in the making of regular English Drama. Interludes didn’t have allegorical characters. Moralities were sermons in disguise but Interludes were aimed at the amusement of the audience. The interludes of John Heywood were very popular during the reigns of Henry VIIIth who continued to perform interludes in the reign of Queen Mary too. John Heywood was a friend of Thomas More. He wrote many popular interludes including The Merry Play between Johan Johan, Sir John the Priest, Tib and his Wife, and others.

Small companies of actors were formed and these companies were employed by houses of Nobility for the amusement of noblemen and women. When leave was granted to these actors, they used to play for the public. Thus the pure motive of public entertainment by drama was gradually taking its roots.

4^th Stage

In the fourth stage, English tragedy dramas were developed. This stage was influenced by the renaissance and the Church had lost power. Play writers of these days we're influenced by Seneca’s tragedies and the result was the first English Drama Gorbuduc written by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton. It was performed by the Gentlemen of the Inner Temple in front of Queen Elizabeth I on 18^th January 1561.

Gorbuduc is a pure Tragedy. The story is, Gorbuduc, the king of Britain divided his realms in his lifetime to his sons Ferrex and Porrex. The sons fell to dissension. The younger son killed the elder one. The mother that more dearly loved the elder, for revenge, killed the younger. The people moved with the cruelty of the fact, rose in rebellion, and slain both father and mother. The nobility assembled and most terribly destroyed the rebels; and afterward for want of issue of the Prince, whereby the succession of the crown became uncertain, they fell to civil war in which both of them and many of their supporters were killed and the land for a long period remained almost desolate and miserably wasted.

5^th Stage

Since interludes were performed for the nobility, they gave rise to better set up of stage, curtains and other impressive innovations in dramatic acts and that gave rise to the English Theaters. Playhouses were established. Some of the major playhouses were

1) The Theater, opened in 1576, established just outside the city of London by James Burbage.

2) The Curtain Theater (1577)

3) The Rose (1587)

4) The Swan (1595)

5) The Globe (1599)

6) The Fortune (1600)

7) Red Bull (1604)

So this was all about the History of Drama, we began with Greek tragedies and moved to Roman Farce to Old and Middle English period Mysteries and Miracles. We learned the development of Moralities and Interludes and we learned the summary of the first English drama Gorbuduc. We also discussed the development of the stage and the establishment of Elizabethan theaters. In the next section, we will continue our discussion on Elizabethan Drama and Dramatists. Thanks and regards.

Herman Melville || Summary of Moby Dick or The White Whale and other Major works by Melville

Hello and Welcome to the Discourse. So we have covered the Early American literature and we have also seen the works of abolitionist authors. Now we will move towards American Romanticism.

The very first American Romantic author that we will discuss is Herman Melville. He was a dark romanticist.

Dark Romanticism is a sub-genre of Romanticism. Generally, it is associated with Satan, devils, ghosts, ghouls, vampires, and werewolves, that is, with the supernatural powers of evil.

Romanticism is the celebration of human virtues, strength, courage, and success. On the other hand, Dark Romanticism suggests that no matter how strong, virtuous, hard-working, determined, and brave a human hero is, he is not infallible, He may commit mistakes and that will result in his failure.

Dark Romantic authors create such characters who are strong, virtuous, determined, and impressive and they struggle to make their life better. But eventually, situations prompt them to commit mistakes and they self-destruct themselves under the supernatural powers of evil.

In American literature, the three major and popularly known authors who created such Dark Romantic characters & literature are Edgar Allen Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville.

Herman Melville (1819-1891)

Melville was born in New York City in the year 1819. His father was a successful rich merchant. However, his father died in 1832 under huge debts and the family suffered an extreme financial crisis. He left his studies and turned to work to earn his living and for his family.

In 1839, he joined a merchant ship as a common sailor. But at heart, he was an adventurist. As he got some financial security, he turned to join a whaler ship named Acushnet.

A whaler is a huge strong-built ship that is used to catch and hunt whales. On the sea, he left the ship in the Marquesas Islands where he came in contact with the native people of the Islands who were uncivilized and cannibalistic.

Herman Melville wrote several essays, books, novels, novellas, and he wrote some poetry too. We will discuss all his major works in brief and we will expand our discussion on Moby Dick, which is not only his best and most successful book but is also known as one of the Greatest Novels of American Literature.

1) Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846)

This book is considered a classic in travel and adventure literature. In this book, Melville partly depicted his own experiences on the Island Nuku Hiva in the South Pacific Marquesas Islands group where he visited in 1842.

This book was the most successful book of Melville during his lifetime and it gave him the title of “the man who lived among the cannibals.”

The story of Typee tells about how the narrator loses his ship and reaches Nuku Hiva Island. Here, he meets a voluptuously beautiful young native girl named Fayaway and falls in love with that girl.

The book in fact expresses strong support and sympathy towards the native tribes and it criticizes the missionaries attempting to civilize them. The theme is pretty similar to the current situations of tribes in the Andaman and Nicobar islands where missionaries try to infiltrate and convert native tribesmen to Christianity.

2) Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Pacific Sea. (1847)

This work is a sequel to Typee and it is also based on the real-life experiences of Melville. It was published in the year 1847. The hero of Typee leaves Nuku Hiva island on a whaling ship that moves towards Tahiti. A mutiny occurs on the ship, some people are murdered and a third of the crew members are imprisoned on Tahiti.

This story was the source of the American exploitation movie Omoo Omoo subtitled The Shark God.

3) Moby Dick: The White Whale (1851)

This third and most successful work of Herman Melville was published in the year 1851. It is also known as The White Whale. A sailor named Ishmael narrates his experiences on a whaling expedition with his captain Ahab.

During his lifetime of Melville, Moby Dick was an unsuccessful, failure, out-of-print novel. However, it gained prominence and became one of the most successful novels of America after his death. Nobel Laureate author William Faulkner praised the novel and said he wished he had written the book himself. D. H. Lawrence, another successful author called Moby Dick “One of the strangest and most wonderful books in the world.”

Summary of Moby Dick

The novel begins with the line “Call me Ishmael.” It is one of the most famous openings of a book.

The novel tells the story of a sailor captain Ahab, his crew member Ishmael, and a white whale named Moby-Dick. The title of the whale Moby Dick is based on the real albino male whale named Mocha Dick who was notorious for its attacks on sailor ships and was very difficult to catch.

Also, the end of the novel is inspired by the sinking of the whaler ship Essex that drowned in the sea in 1820.

Moby Dick is the epitome of Dark Romance and Melville was inspired by Shakespeare, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and the Bible to write this classic.

The narrator is Ishmael who travels from Manhattan Island to New Bedford, Massachusetts to find a job at some whaling expedition. He meets a Polynesian named Queequeg who is very strong built and frightening, but later on, it is revealed that he is a very kind-hearted and good person. Both of them join the whaler ship Pequod, owned by Bildad and Peleg. They introduce them to the Captain of the ship, Ahab.

A man named Elizah stops them and warns that if Ishmael and Queequeg both board the ship, the whaler will suffer dire consequences. Anyways, the ship leaves the harbor.

Captain Ahab is a proud, experienced sailor who is determined to take revenge against a white albino whale known as Moby Dick who bit off his leg at the knee on his previous voyage. He is obsessed with his desire to take revenge. He decorates the ship with whale teeth and his own prosthesis leg is made of a whale’s jaw bone.

Captain Ahab announces that he will offer a Doubloon (a precious gold coin) to the man who sees Moby Dick first and informs him. Apart from the crew, there are five more people on the ship whose leader is Fedallah. Captain Ahab tells that they are a special team to help him in hunting Mobi Dick. Fedallah is Ahab’s harpooner.

The Chief mate is Starbuck who opposes Ahab and says that he didn’t come to take revenge but to make money. Ishmael on the other hand, finds himself supporting captain Ahab.

Their ship Pequod makes 9 sea encounters or ‘gams’ with other whaler ships. A Gam is a social visit of the Captain and Chief mate of one ship to the other. The two captains meet at one ship, and the two chief mates meet at the other. Their first of the gams happens with Albatross whaler. Ahab asks whether they have seen the white whale. Ahab misses the customary meet because of his obsession with vengeance.

Pequod's second sea encounter is with whaler Town-Ho. This ship conveys a concealed story. A defiant crew person disobeys a rude and exploitative officer and the officer punishes him brutally. Later on, that officer chases Mobi Dick but he falls from the boat and Mobi Dick kills him.

On the course of the sea, Ahab’s crew members kill two whales, a Right Whale, and a Sperm Whale. They fasten the head of the two whales on yardarms opposite each other. Ishmael compares them philosophically and says the right whale represents Lockean, stoic and the sperm whale represents Kantian, platonic.

A sea-storm causes severe damage to the boats of the ship Pequod. While others suggest Ahab return, he becomes more adamant to take revenge. In the storm, many boats are lost in the sea and they seek Ahab’s help but he refuses and continues to search Mobi Dick.

Pequod's Next Gam happens with the whaler Rachel. Rachel represents Angelic help. The captain of this ship Captain Gardiner. This ship is searching for its crew members who went behind Mobi Dick to chase it but were lost. Captain Gardiner asks Ahab to help him in searching them but he refuses and goes on in his quest to kill Mobi Dick.

The last gams of Peaquod are with whaler Delight. It is in an almost destroyed state and many crew members have been killed by Moby Dick. The Captain of Delight shouts that Mobi Dick cannot be killed, the harpoon which can kill Mobi Dick hasn’t been forged yet. But Ahab refuses to listen and continues his search.

The next day, Ahab feels the presence of Mobi Dick in nearby waters. He takes the gold coin himself as he was the first person to see Mobi Dick. He orders all except Starbucks to lower their boats and chase Mobi Dick. Mobi Dick attacks and destroys many boats including Ahab’s boat leaving Ahab in the waters. His harpooner Fedallah is also killed. Ahab also loses his whalebone leg but returns back to the ship.

Starbucks requests his captain to give up his obsession and return but Ahab says that he will return only after slaying Mobi Dick. Starbucks feels like shooting and killing captain Ahab as he sleeps, but doesn’t do so.

Ahab sees Mobi Dick again on the third day and many sharks also come along with the albino whale. Ahab lowers his boat again to attack Moby Dick with the other two boats and harpooners. Starbucks again remains back on the board while Ishmael accompanies Ahab. However, Mobi Dick destroys two boats. Ahab plants his harpoon in the white whale’s flank. In pain, Moby Dick destroys the last boat too and vanishes away. All others return to the ship but Ishmael fails to return and he is left behind in the sea.

Now Moby Dick attacks the ship Pequod brutally and destroys it. All drown and Mobi Dick kills them while Ahab is on the other side. Mobi Dick returns to Ahab in waters and Ahab stabs the whale with his harpoon again. However, the wire of his harpoon gets tangled and it loops on his neck. Being hurt, Moby Dick swims back and Ahab is strangulated as his neck was entangled with the wire attached with the harpoon stabbed in Mobi Dick.

Thus, every crew member of the ship dies except Ishmael who was left behind. He keeps on floating on the water for a day and a night and then he sees the whaler Rachel again which was still searching for their lost crew members. Captain Gardiner rescues Ishmael and saves his life. Ishmael feels that the ship Rachel is the Angel of God who came to save his life.

The main weakness of captain Ahab was his pride that lead him to the path of self-destruction despite being warned by his crew-members, sailors, and nature itself many a time.

4) Billy Budd, Sailor (1924)

The last work of Melville was Billy Budd, the Sailor. It is an unfinished work without a clear ending as Melville died in 1891 before completing this novella. His wife and his biographer tried to complete the book as per their own intentions and transcriptions and it was published in the year 1924. It also got a huge success.

The story-line is interesting. Billy Budd is a handsome sailor who is falsely accused of treachery by a fellow sailor. While refuting, they both fight and Billy Budd inadvertently kills the other sailor without the intent of murder. The ship captain Edward Vere realizes that Billy Budd is innocent and he was falsely accused of treachery and his intentions were also not to kill the murdered sailor. However, as per the law of mutiny, Billy Budd must be sentenced to death.

Battle Pieces and Aspects of War (1866)

So these were the four major works of Herman Melville, Typee, Omoo, Mobi Dick, and Billy Budd. Apart from these, Melville also tried poetry. The title of his poetry collection is Battle-Pieces and Aspects of War which was published in the year 1866. It is a collection of poetry written on the subject of the Civil War of America. While these poems were recognized but weren’t appreciated much during the life of Melville. However, in the latter half of the twentieth century, his poems and especially this collection Battle Pieces and Aspects of War was hugely appreciated and many critics mentioned it as one of the best series of Civil War lyrics next only to that of Walt Whitman.

That is all for today, we will come up with another literary gem of American Literature in our next vlog. Please subscribe to the Discourse and stay connected. Thanks and regards!