Age of Civil War and Interregnum | Age of Milton | Age of Puritans

 Age of Civil War and Interregnum | Age of Milton | Age of Puritans

Hello and welcome to the Discourse.

King James IV published his book The True Law of Monarchies in 1598. Through this book, he tried to force the idea of the divine right of kings in Scotland, England, and Ireland. James IV died in 1625. Charles Ist became the next king and he also believed in the divine right of kings. However, the English Parliament had its own powers and that created a rift between the monarch and the parliamentarians. King Charles Ist took some such decisions and actions that lead to a revolution by the parliamentarians and created the ground for Civil War in England that began in 1640 and continued till 1649. In 1649, the army of Parliamentarians won and King Charles the Ist was beheaded. He became the first king to be executed by his own people.

Age of Civil War

The civil war had its effect on English literature and no noteworthy literary work was produced during these years. The English monarch lacked any standing army or a paid bureaucracy and hence he was powerless to coerce the parliamentarians. The taxation system was controlled by the Parliament and hence the king lacked any legal source of income. English war against Spain proved to be costly and fruitless and that increased the financial troubles of Charles Ist. Furthermore, despite his marriage to a Catholic princess, he didn’t enjoy the support of Catholics. Puritans were already against the Anglican church and hence the King because the supreme leader of the Anglican church was the King. Protestants were angry against King Charles I because of his policies. King Charles I tried to improve the financial status of his kingdom by levying extra charges on custom duties, exacting forced loans, and exploiting feudal privileges but it was not enough. He further tried to impose some non-parliamentary taxation and that prompted the Parliament to raise its voice against him.

King Charles Ist tried to win the support of Parliament but the members of Parliament were not ready to burden the common public with new taxes. As a result, the king dismissed the parliament three times and didn’t allow the members of parliamentarians to meet. King Charles 1^st strongly believed that being the Monarch he has a divine right to rule and for him, the parliament was the entity that continued to hamper his right to rule as he wanted. In 1628, King Charles I locked the parliament after the Petition of Rights was approved. He didn’t allow the parliament to meet for the next 12 years. Meanwhile, many members of parliament were imprisoned and one of them named John Eliot died during his imprisonment.

The English Civil War was a series of civil wars and political upheaval that began in 1642 and continued till 1651. The first part of this civil war began in 1642 and ended in 1646. The supporters of King Charles I were known as the Cavaliers or Royalists and the opposing supporters of Parliamentarians were known as Roundheads. The major issues of the war were excessive taxation, the high-handedness of the King in the matter of ruling England, and interference in religious freedom.

Initially, King Charles I’s army gained success against the army of Parliamentarians.

Generally, the North and Southwest parts of England favored the king. All the Caroline poets were Cavaliers as they supported King Charles Ist. These Caroline poets and writers wrote poems, articles, and pamphlets in support of the king, presenting him in good light to win the support of the common people.

On the other hand, people in London and the South-Eastern part of England were supporting Parliamentarians. King Charles Ist left London with his family to North in January 1642 as he feared for the safety of his family.

Initially, Cavalier forces had an advantage over the Parliamentarian forces because while the Cavalier forces were fighting under the leadership of King Charles Ist who was an experienced general, there was no clear leader of the Parliamentarian forces. Soon, an educated and dedicated Puritan Oliver Cromwell took the leadership of Parliamentarian forces and supporters. He changed the way of administration of the Army. While in the Cavalier forces, anyone with enough riches could gain a high position, Cromwell made sure that an army man attains a position as per his skills and abilities. Gradually, the Parliamentarian forces started gaining an upper hand. King Charles Ist belonged to Scotland and he had high hopes of support from Scottish forces. However, he was working for the uniform Anglican Church rule throughout his three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland and this created a negative feeling against him in the hearts of Presbyterian Scottish people who sided with the Parliamentarians against the Cavalier forces. The Scottish forces imprisoned King Charles Ist and handed him over to the Parliamentarian forces in May 1646.

After his arrest, the period of ‘Interbellum’ began in which all the different axis of forces were trying to make alliances to gain complete power over England, Scotland, and Ireland. The period of Interbellum, when there was no clear government in England ended in 1648 when the Presbyterian party again aligned with the Royalists and they together made a strong force supporting King Charles I.

Oliver Cromwell was consolidating his political powers while King Charles I also tried to regain the support of various factions and raise a strong army while he was still in prison. Oliver Cromwell realized that King Charles I will not let the Parliamentarians settle in the powerful position. In 1648, some unpaid soldiers of Parliamentarians changed sides and vowed to support King Charles Ist. Oliver Cromwell could now see the real threat and he decided to end the threat of King Charles Ist and his new forces by executing him. King Charles Ist was beheaded on 5 July 1649. This period from 1648-1649 was the second leg of the English civil war that ended with the execution of King Charles Ist.

After the death of King Charles Ist, his son King Charles II was the legal heir but Parliamentarians opposed the return to Monarchy and Oliver Cromwell was elected as the leader. Supporters of Charles II raised forces in support of Charles II and the third leg of the Civil war began in 1649 and continued till 1651. The Parliamentarian forces again won the struggle and the unrest was put to an end on 3 September 1651. Prince Charles II ran away to France.

In 1653, Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector of England and he remained the de facto ruler of England till his death.

The Period of Interregnum (1649-1660)

The third leg of the English Civil War was fought during the period of Interregnum which began after the death of King Charles I in 1649 and ended in 1660 with the return of Ki9ng Charles II on the English throne. While theaters were banned as an abject means of entertainment on 6^th September 1642, there was no hard censor or ban on other literary works. However, the social and political situations of then England were such that no noteworthy literary work was produced during the years of the Civil War. All the literature created during this period were either influenced by political scenario and hence either biased towards Royalists or biased towards Roundheads, or it was influenced by religious sentiments.

From 1649 to 1653, executive powers were held by the Council of State while Rump Parliament controlled the legislative works. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector holding the rule of England, Scotland, and Ireland and hence making the Commonwealth. While Oliver Cromwell gained huge support during the years of the Civil War, his time as the Lord Protector wasn’t so great. It was difficult to control and maintain peace with different religious factions including the Presbyterians, Puritans, Catholics, and Protestants. Cromwell forced Puritan ideals strictly. All were forced to lead an austere lifestyle. There were restrictions on fashion and clothing. Holidays of the sabbath, easter, and Christmas were suppressed. Gambling and theater were completely banned. However, some forms of religious entertainment such as Opera were allowed.

Meanwhile, the Lord Protector was also facing financial difficulties that continued from the times of King Charles I. To ease the situation, Cromwell allowed the admission of Jews in England. Though this decision proved to be controversial and Jews continued to suffer the hostile attitudes of English people. Yet, they were allowed to worship and maintain synagogues.

Lord Protector was also facing the threat of Irish and Scottish rebellion and he had to maintain a strong army to suppress any rebellion. To do so, he had to exact strict taxes. The civil war began as the Parliamentarians didn’t want the common public to face the burden of taxes, but the public still had to pay high taxes. Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658 after suffering a long illness. After his death, his son Richard Cromwell took the position of Lord Protector which was also opposed by various factions. Richard had no support base in Parliament and he was forced to resign in May 1659. The Long Parliament was restored in 1659 and after some time, Prince Charles II was invited to England in 1660 to be the new King of England under a restored monarchy.

So we have discussed the historical, political, and social background of the Age of Civil War and the Interregnum. Now we will discuss the major literary works of this period which include the works of John Milton and other noteworthy authors. Please stay connected with the Discourse. 

Thanks and Regards!

The Awakening by Kate Chopin | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 The Awakening by Kate Chopin | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Awakening is a feminist fiction novel that was published in the year 1899. The novel depicts the story of Edna Pontellier, a married wife and a mother who feels suffocated in her married life and tries to attain freedom. The novel was against the moral norms of victorian society and hence it was highly criticized after its publication. However, with the changing social norms, the novel gained popularity after the death of Kate Chopin and is considered a prototype of feminist literature. The meaning of the title and the message of the novel is that the central character Edna succeeds in rediscovering herself, independent of her familial identity and role as a mother and wife as she awakens.

The novel suggests the strong influence of French writer Guy de Maupassant and is considered as an example of naturalism or nineteenth-century literary realism.

Characters:

Edna Pontellier is the central character of the novel. She is a respectable presbyterian married woman, a mother of two sons (Etienne and Raoul). She rediscovers her individual identity and rebels against the social norms while rejecting the conventional expectations as a mother and wife.

Leonce Pontellier is a successful businessman, husband of Edna. He is unaware of her wife’s struggle in the married life.

Mademoiselle Reisz is a gifted musician, an individualist who doesn’t conform to the expected role of her as a female in society. She invests most of her time in music and herself without caring what society thinks of her. She lives an asexual life like a celibate. Edna finds herself disagreeing with Reisz more than often, yet she finds her inspiring. Adele Rantignolle is Edna’s friend. She represents a perfect victorian woman of the 19^th century. She is completely devoted to her husband and children. She is a good pianist but all her music is to please her kids and family. She continues to remind Edna of her duties as a mother and a wife. Alcee Arobin is a womanizer known for seducing married women. Edna engages in a short-lived relationship with him. Robert Lebrun is a charming young man who succeeds in winning Edna’s heart. He has a history of falling in love with women he cannot have. He flirts with Edna and this instigates rebellious feelings in Edna.

Summary of The Awakening

Leonce Pontellier is a rich businessman in Louisiana who goes on a vacation at a resort in Grand Isle on the Gulf of Mexico with his wife Edna and two sons Etienne and Raul. The resort is managed by Madam Lebrun and her two sons Victor and Robert.

Edna is an introverted person who spends most of her time with her friend Adele Ratignolle. Adele is a devoted wife who cheerily continues to remind Edna of her duties towards her sons and husband. At the resort, Edna finds the calmness and solitude that she longed for. Robert is infatuated with Edna and he flirts with her. Eventually, Edna makes a connection with Robert who actively seeks her approval. Robert has a history of falling in love with such women who he cannot have.

Robert helps Edna in learning how to swim. Edna and Robert fall in love but when Robert realizes that their relationship cannot reach a happy conclusion as she is already married with two sons, he decides to fly away to Mexico. He pretends to go for an important business venture.

However, Robert has already instigated Edna who was already feeling suffocated in her married life. She desires an independent life and she wants to live with Robert. As Robert runs away, she tries to reconcile with her married life and duties and her desires of being independent, free.

Edna meets Mademmoise Reisz on the Grand Isle as she was also there for vacation. Reisz is a musician. She lives alone, an independent life. Unlike Rantignolle, Reisz creates music for herself. Edna is attracted towards Reisz and one day, when Reisz plays piano for Edna, she gets overwhelmed and cries. She realizes a certain awakening in herself to find her own identity independent of her being a wife or mother. Edna likes painting and she starts as a painter.

While Edna appreciates Reisz, she cannot agree with her and she finds a definite void in Reisz’s life. Edna realizes her natural inclinations as she likes sex very much. However, Reisz is celibate, living a life almost like a hermit.

Edna realizes that nature forces her either to lead a life like Adele, where she can have sex and become a devoted wife and mother. Or else, she can choose to be like Reisz, independent, successful, yet, away from carnal pleasures, as if giving up a part of her womanhood. Edna is not ready to succumb to this societal pressure. Adele unknowingly awakens Edna’s sexual self.

As summer approaches, Edna returns to New Orleans with her family. She starts living a secluded life, giving less and less attention to her husband and children. Leonce notices this change and he thinks that Edna is suffering some illness. They consult a doctor. The doctor gets some inkling that maybe Edna is having an affair. However, he doesn’t reveal this to Leonce.

When Leonce plans to go to New York City for a business meeting, he decides to send his sons to his mother’s house as Edna is sick and unable to take proper care of her children. This lets Edna have some solitude. She actually enjoys this independence when she is alone, away from her husband and children. Yet, she continues to remember and miss her sons. She realizes that nature forces a woman to be a mother. However, Edna has vowed not to succumb and give up her individual self to just become a wife and mother. She decides to pursue a career as a painter. She hires a small house for rent and starts living there. She names this rented house 'Pigeon House'.

She starts earning good money through her money and hence breaches the market which is male-centric. Edna uses that money for herself. She bets on horses and buys things she likes. She also buys and sends confectionaries to her sons and realizes that she loves them too much. Edna also realizes her sexual self as she makes a short-term relationship with Alcee Arobin to get sexual relief in absence of her husband. She realizes that while a man can easily enjoy sex without taking responsibility for children and family, a woman cannot do so easily.

In New Orleans, Edna continues to remain in contact with Reisz and Adele. Reisz informs her that she is in contact with Robert through letters. Edna requests her to let her read those letters. Reisz shows her the letters written by Robert. These letters confirm that Robert still loves her.

Robert returns from Mexico to New Orleans. He continues to maintain distance from Edna. However, he succumbs to his feelings and confesses his love for Edna as he goes to visit her at Pigeon House.

Adele is pregnant again and about to give childbirth. Edna is called to help her as her delivery is proving to be complicated. When Edna meets Adele, Adele pleads with her to reconsider her choices and says that she will lose a lot if she doesn’t behave appropriately. Soon after Adele dies while giving birth to a child. Edna again confronts the nature that prompts a woman to be a mother, a wife.

Edna returns home as she decides to choose her freedom and be with Robert forever. However, when she reaches home, she finds a note written by Robert who has already left. The note says that Robert is leaving Edna because he loves her and their relationship has no meaning and hence he could not pursue it.

Edna is heartbroken. She has to make a choice, either to be like Reisz, independent but celibate, or be like Adele, a devoted wife, and mother while forgetting her own self. Edna returns to Grand Isle where she met Robert for the first time. Robert taught her how to swim. She faces the sea and gets completely naked as a newly born child and starts swimming in the open sea under the sun. She continues to swim far in the sea until her limbs get tired, and then she drowns. Her death resembles her new birth where she could be independent, free, and satisfied.

Analysis of The Awakening

The story is about the struggle of a woman seeking independence. She is at struggle against societal and natural norms that force her to accept the identity of a woman recognized by her husband, and children. She loves her sons but she says that she can give her money and life for her kids, but she cannot sacrifice herself, her freedom to them. Reisz and Adele are the two epitomes that Edna may follow. While she gets sexual and emotional fulfillment if she chooses to be like Adele, she will have to accept the societal norms and set up defined for a domestic woman. On the other hand, if she chooses to lead an artistic life like that of Reisz, she will have to compromise her sexual self which she is not ready to do as she likes her sexual self. Edna decides to act like a man. She begins her career and starts making money. She engages in a short-termed affair with Alcee while she still loves Robert and is the wife of Leonce. She realizes that while it is easy for a man to do so, it is not that easy for a woman. 

Edna desires to enjoy the freedom that a man easily attains while remaining a female. She loves her feminine sexuality and sensuality, yet wants to be independent of the responsibilities of being a woman that she thinks society forces on her. As she realizes that not only societal rules, norms, and expectations, but nature itself forces her to be a woman defined by their husband and children, she opts to end herself.

So this is about The Awakening by Kate Chopin. We will continue to discuss American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Storm by Kate Chopin

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The Storm is a short story written by Kate Chopin in 1898. It remained unpublished for a long period. After the death of Kate Chopin, this story came in print in the year 1969 in the book The Complete Works of Kate Chopin.

This story is a sequel to another short story by Chopin titled At the Candian Ball which was published in 1892. The main characters of both stories are Alcee and Calixta who are married to Bobinot and Clarisse respectively. The theme of ‘At the Candian Ball’ is the class struggle as it is a drama of class dynamics. The story chronicles the activities of a newly launched ball where Calixta is a belle dancer. Alcee visits the ball and becomes frequent while Calixta favors him. Gradually, both grow fond of each other as they fall in love. However, Alcee is a wealthy Creole while Calixta belongs to a lower-class Arcadian family. Both succumb to the class struggle and settle with partners from their respective classes. Alcee marries Clarisse while Calixta marries Bobinot.

The Strom is a sexually explicit story that emphasizes the female erotic experience. Kate Chopin didn’t try to get this story published during her lifetime probably because of prudish and morally righteous publishers and critics of her time. She already was being criticized for breaking the norms. Her novel The Awakening got negative reviews even though it was not centered around erotic experience but depicted a female’s domestic experience. The Awakening tells a story of a woman who decides to leave her husband and live her life independently.

Summary of The Storm

The story begins with Bobinot and his four-year-old son Bibi shopping at Friedheimer's store when a violent storm begins to take shape. The storm appears dangerous so Bobinot decides to stay at the mall with his son and wait until the storm passes. Bobinot is worried about his wife. He buys a can of shrimps for his wife as he waits for the storm to abate.

At home, Bobinot’s wife Calixta is busy with her sewing work. Initially, she doesn’t notice the strong storm. As it grows darker outside, she notices the bad weather and decides to shut the windows and take the clothes back that are hanging outside to dry. As she picks up the laundry, she notices that Alcee, one of her old acquaintances is standing there, trying to save himself against the storm. He asks for shelter and she invites him inside her home.

It is getting late as the sky grows darker. Calixta is worried about her husband and son but Alcee soothes her. Her worries give rise to the old suppressed passion that she used to feel for Alcee, once they were lovers and wished to marry each other. The town is small and houses are very close to each other. However, the storm is very strong and loud and no one can leave wherever they are.

Their passion ignites a strong sexual urge and Alcee and Calixta end up having sex with each other as the storm protects them. Calixta, who always remained honest towards her husband, enjoys this sexual escapade to the fullest. Later on, Alcee goes away on his horse as the storm settles. Calixta laughs in ecstasy as she bids goodbye to Alcee.

Bobinot and Bibi return home as the storm passes away. Calixta is too excited and happy to see them safe. Bobinot is relieved that his wife is not complaining about the delay. Bobinot presents the pack of shrimp to Calixta and she gets overjoyed. Calixta prepares a fine dinner and the family enjoys the evening.

On the other hand, Alcee reaches his home and he is feeling ecstatic. He decides to write a letter to his wife Clarisse, saying that if she and their children are enjoying their time at Biloxi, they should stay there for a while longer. The letter reaches Biloxi. When Clarisse reads the letter, she is also happy. She realizes that though she is missing her husband, she is actually enjoying the independence at Biloxi that she hasn’t known since she got married. She decides to stay at Biloxi for a while longer.

The story ends as the narrator suggests that the storm has passed and everyone is happy.

Themes

The major theme of this story is forbidden love and sexual desires. The relationship of Calixta and Alcee is more passionate than they could feel with their real-life partners. Calixta is fearful of the storm as her husband and son are outside. Alcee is calm and as he soothes Calixta, a bolt of loud lightning occurs outside. Calixta is more fearful and Alcee embraces her to soothe her. This rekindles the forbidden love that the two had decided to avoid as they belonged to different classes (in the prequel At the Candian Ball.) Calixta gives in to her urge to have sex with Alcee and it appears against the moral norms. Even as the storm settles there are worries about how Calixta and Alcee will face their spouses after committing such forbidden love.

The other theme of the story is familial obligations. Calixta is fully devoted to her family, doing the chores properly. Alcee is also a responsible husband and father as he cares for his wife and children and regularly writes letters as his family is away. The storm occurs as an interruption to their familial obligations and as the storm passes, they return back to their regular life.

So this is it about The Storm, a short story by Kate Chopin. We will continue to discuss American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Retreat by Henry Vaughan | Summary, Analysis

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The Retreat is a much talked about a metaphysical poem by Henry Vaughan whose title itself is a prime example of metaphysical conceit. A retreat can have two meanings, the first is to hide or run away from one’s life, and the other is to go back to a happier place. The poet means both at different stages of the poem. The theme of the poem is the purity of childhood and infancy. The poet glorifies infancy as the purest stage of a man’s life. The poet mourns for the lost days of his childhood and wishes to return to older times of his ‘angel infancy when he was far away from the dark forces of the world.

Currently, he is worried about his own life, emotions, and sinful behavior. He is concerned about his sinful behavior that was not even thought of when he was a child.

In the final lines of the poem, the poet describes his probable death and how he will return to the dust of the earth. It won’t be a disaster as the poet suggests that it will be a penultimate ending before he could return to his angelic innocent previous life.

Structure of the poem

This is a short 32 lines poem arranged in a single stanza. The alternative lines are arranged in iambic and trochaic meters. The poem uses rhetoric, conceit, metaphors, metonymy, alliteration, and paradox.

Summary

Lines 1–6

Happy those early days! when I

Shined in my angel infancy.

Before I understood this place

Appointed for my second race,

Or taught my soul to fancy aught

But a white, celestial thought;

The poet begins with appreciating his childhood days as he remembers the old time. He represents his infancy, his childhood as angelic. Then he explains his current situation. He says that the place he now shows him all the dark sinful corners of the world. When he was young, he used to cherish his angelic thoughts and he never even realized that those were celestial, divine. But now it takes strong efforts to think as clearly as he used to.

Lines 7-14

When yet I had not walked above

A mile or two from my first love,

And looking back, at that short space,

Could see a glimpse of His bright face;

When on some gilded cloud or flower

My gazing soul would dwell an hour,

And in those weaker glories spy

Some shadows of eternity;

The poet continues to describe the happiness that he cherished during his childhood. During his younger age when he hadn’t walked more than a mile or two away from his home, his first love, the poet says that he was able to see the almighty’s face and grace. It was a period when his mind remained calm and he never worried about anything. He could spend hours while praising the natural beauty of some white fluffy cloud or a flower.

In the next two lines, the poet suggests that in those moments of calmness when he could feel no worries, though those moments were short, they appeared like an eternity. They were only shadows, but very precious.

Lines 15-20

Before I taught my tongue to wound

My conscience with a sinful sound,

Or had the black art to dispense

A several sin to every sense,

But felt through all this fleshly dress

Bright shoots of everlastingness.

The poet further describes the goodness of childhood. When he was young, he didn’t need to worry much about what he spoke or express as he hardly said anything that would harm his own conscience, he cherished that innocence. He never cared about what is morally right or wrong, he just lived as a free soul. However, as he grew up, the ‘black art’ tainted his emotions. As a young person, he didn’t worry about whatever he experienced and felt and if it was sinful. Now when he has grown up, he is aware of the nature of his own emotions and it bothers him. When he was young, he never felt any guilty thoughts about his body his existence (fleshy dress), rather he thought that he will always remain young and invigorating as if his youth is everlasting.

Lines 21-26

O, how I long to travel back,

And tread again that ancient track!

That I might once more reach that plain

Where first I left my glorious train,

From whence th’ enlightened spirit sees

That shady city of palm trees.

In these lines, the poet expresses his strong desire to return to the good old days of his childhood, youth. He makes an exclamation “O, how I long to travel back” (to the past). The poet is convinced that his past life was way better. So he would like to relive while giving up his current life. While it is impossible, the poet says that if it could be possible, that he will be able to reach the place where he left his ‘glorious train,’ his previous innocent carefree being. The poet is aware of the exact position of place where he left it too. He knows that he left his previous being on the hillside where his ‘enlightened spirit’ resides. ‘Enlightened spirit’ is his innocent angelic childhood which can see the city of palm trees where his previous being rests.

Lines 27-32

But, ah! my soul with too much stay

Is drunk, and staggers in the way.

Some men a forward motion love;

But I by backward steps would move,

And when this dust falls to the urn,

In that state I came, return.

In the next lines, the poet laments his inability to return to the past and achieve his previous self when he was innocent youth. The memories of the good old days have affected him much and he feels as if he is drunk. Even if he tries to turn back to his youth, he will stagger and fail. The poet then says that some people prefer moving forward but he wants to go back and attain his innocence again. In the last two lines, the poet describes how he will die and how his death will bring him closer to his innocent being as he will return to the same innocence that he has when he was an infant. These lines support the idea of Afterlife.

The Retreat is a religious poem in which the poet suggests that the societal norms have corrupted his soul and he longs to attain the purity of innocent spirituality again.

This is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse! Thanks and regards!

Kate Chopin The Story of An Hour | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 Kate Chopin The Story of An Hour | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse.

Kate Choplin was an American author of short stories and novels. Some of her most acclaimed short stories are The Storm (1898), The Story of An Hour (1894), Desirable Baby (1893). The collection of her stories was published by the title Bayou Folk.

Kate Chopin was born on February 8, 1850, and she died on August 22, 1904. Kate Chopin lost her father at the age of five and she was raised by her mother and grandmother. She was influenced by the nuns of her school. As she grew among strong women leading an independent life without the help of any male partner, individual liberty among women became a prominent theme of her writing. Though Kate Chopin denied being a feminist or suffragist, she rather proclaimed the idea of individual liberty and suggested that it was only a chance that the protagonists happen to be strong female characters. Chopin herself was an individual spirit. Kate married Oscar Chopin in 1870. Oscar died unexpectedly in 1882. Kate mourned her husband’s death deeply but she recovered soon as she had to take care of her kids. She was an unusual lady who used to smoke cigarettes, discuss politics and take part in social activities. After her husband’s death, she also got romantically involved with a married man but didn’t carry the affair for long. Her sense of individual liberty, the meaning of marriage, and female sexuality is expressed in her short stories and novels.

The Story of An Hour

Kate Chopin wrote The Story of An Hour on April 19, 1894. It was published in the Vogue Magazine on December 6, 1894, by the title The Dream of an Hour. Later on, Kate changed the title to The Story of An Hour and it was republished in the magazine St. Louis Life on January 5, 1895.

Characters

This is a short story and hence the list of characters is also very short. Louise Mallard is a middle-aged married woman with a weak heart problem. Her husband is Brentley Mallard. The couple is leading a calm yet mundane life. They admire each other and are loyal to each other. Both husband and wife take good care of each other. Despite this, Louise feels that she is being oppressed by her marriage. She is an independent lady who fails to conform to the norms of marriage. As a result, she falls sick with heart problems. Josephine is Louise’s younger sister. She knows about her sickness and when she learns about Brentley’s death in an accident, she tries to inform Louise carefully to avoid any shock to her. Richard is Brentley Mallard’s friend. He learns about the death of Brentley in a newspaper. He visits Brentley’s house and Josephine informs Louise about Brentley’s death in Richard’s presence.

Summary of The Story of An Hour

As the title suggests, this story tells about the happenings that occurred within an hour.

Louise Mallard is suffering from heart ailments. Her husband Brentley Mallard has gone out. Her sister Josephine learns that Brentley died in a rail accident. She is sad and nervous as she fears that this news may break Louise’s heart who is already sick and may kill her too. Richards is a close friend of Brentley. He learned about Brentley’s death in a newspaper as he checked the list of casualties in the railroad disaster. He visits Brentley’s house and Josephine decides to inform Louise about her husband’s demise in presence of Richards.

Josephine tells her about Brentley’s death calmly and carefully. Louise is shocked and sad as she starts sobbing when Josephine tells her about Brentley’s death and goes upstairs to be alone in her room.

Louise sits down in her room near an open window and sees the flying birds, bright sun, green trees, smell of approaching rain. All this soothes her heart. She hears the yelling of a street peddler selling his goods. She observes that someone is singing a song nearby and she also hears the chirping of sparrows. She sees the fluffy white clouds floating in the sky. She is still crying for the loss of her husband whom she dearly loved. But she remembers how both of them were feeling oppressed by the marriage though they loved each other. She remembers how a couple of days ago she exclaimed what a long life she has to live with Brently, expressing her depression and wishing to die soon. She is still sobbing but she realizes that she is now free of marriage. She is a middle-aged woman with lines around her eyes, yet, she feels young and invigorated. She tries to suppress her feelings but the word ‘Free’ resounds in her heart. She starts preparing herself for the life ahead without her husband. Though she is still sobbing, she starts feeling a strange warmth in herself. ‘Body and Soul Free’, she repeats to herself.

Josephine knocks at the door of her room and tells her that she should not be alone or she will get sick. Louise tells her not to disturb her and go away. She thinks about the years ahead without the presence of her husband. She will be living an independent life without any oppression or objection from her husband. She starts feeling ecstatic in her newfound sense of freedom. She hopes that she lives a long life now as she is independent.

Louise composes herself and opens the door where Josephine is still waiting for her. Both sisters come downstairs where Richards is still present.

Suddenly, the front door opens and Brentley enters the house. He was not on the train when the railroad disaster occurred. In fact, Brentley has no knowledge of any such accident as he missed the train. When Josephine sees him, she screams of shock and happiness. Richards tries to block Louise from seeing Brentley as he fears this sudden shock may break her, but he fails. Louise sees Brentley and stumbles on stairs and falls.

The doctor arrives at their home and pronounces Louise’s death and declares that Louise died of a heart attack brought on by happiness.

The story ends with a paradoxical irony. The doctor declares that Louise died of a heart attack brought on by happiness at seeing Brentley alive. However, she didn’t feel any heart problems when she heard of Brentley death. She actually felt strong, healthy, and willing to lead and enjoy the nectar of independent life. Her joy of being free is lost when she sees Brentley alive and her heart problem reoccurs and with such a strength that she dies of a heart attack. It was not happiness, but the sorrow of losing the independence again, that killed her.

Themes

The Story of An Hour tells about the forbidden joy of independence that can be felt only in private. When Louise hears about her husband’s death, she cries and mourns and acts appropriately in a natural manner. However, when she is alone, she realizes the newfound freedom in her life as she will no longer be oppressed by her husband. When Josephine tells her that she should not be alone as it will make her sick, Louise tells her to go away as she wants to enjoy her newfound freedom alone.

The story also indicates the inherently oppressive nature of marriage. Though Louise and Brentley are a loving couple with no altercation or disagreement between them, yet Louise feels oppressive though she accepts that Brentley is a loving husband. Kate Choppin suggests that marriages are oppressive by nature, no matter how kind and loving the couple are. When Louise learns of her husband’s death, she cries, but when alone, she feels happy as she will be living an independent life now. She knows that she will again weep at her husband's funeral who was a loving husband, yet she feels freedom from the oppression of marriage. She fails to recall how Brentley oppressed her, but she feels no wrong or malice in her newly-found happiness in freedom.

So this is it about The Story of An Hour by Kate Chopin. We will continue to discuss English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

They Are All Gone into The World of Light by Henry Vaughan | Summary, Analysis

 They Are All Gone into The World of Light by Henry Vaughan | Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse.

They Are All Gone into The World of Light is a metaphysical poem by Henry Vaughan who expressed his personal loss and ensuing feelings in this poem. He wrote this poem after the death of one of his close friends and he expresses his sadness and loneliness.

The poem begins with the pronoun ‘They’ followed by ‘all.’ It suggests that the poet may be talking about anyone. He may be talking about great saints and prophets, lost kings and soldiers, known and unknown faces, friends and foes. Thus, the reader is drawn into an act of mourning.

Poem Structure

The poem contains 40 lines arranged in 10 stanzas. Each stanza contains four lines or quatrains. The rhyming scheme is simple and clear abab. Most of the lines of the poem are arranged in an iambic pentameter scheme however, some of the lines are in iambic trimeter.

The main expression of the poem is loneliness and sadness as the poet has lost his close ones to death and he is mourning his loss. The poem is a meditation on death. The poet juxtaposes the blissful world of light that follows death against the world of darkness and confusion and loneliness that is the fate of living beings. Thus, the poem has the theme of the afterlife.

First Stanza

They are all gone into the world of light!

And I alone sit ling’ring here;

Their very memory is fair and bright,

And my sad thoughts doth clear.

The poet begins with a remembrance of those that he lost to death. He describes them as having gone to the world of light, that is heaven or the ring of eternity. The poet is feeling lonely, sad, and aimless, ‘ling’ring’ here in the living world. The poet is not sad because his close friends are dead now, but he is sad because he is still unable to join them in the world of light. The memories he has are soothing and they clear his mind and thoughts.

Second Stanza

It glows and glitters in my cloudy breast,

Like stars upon some gloomy grove,

Or those faint beams in which this hill is drest,

After the sun’s remove.

The poet continues to describe the good memories of his old friends and close relatives that he has lost. He suggests that their memories are so soothing and strong that they invigorate him. Those visions follow him throughout the day and appear like stars removing the darkness of a dense forest. Those memories are like those rays of light that manages to reach the hilltop even after the sunset.

Third Stanza

I see them walking in an air of glory,

Whose light doth trample on my days:

My days, which are at best but dull and hoary,

Mere glimmering and decays.

The poet suggests that the good old memories of his friends and relatives that he has lost to death are so strong that they appear real to him. He sees them walking in an air of glory as if they are alive while he, even though he is alive, appears dead to himself. He expresses his current situation as dull days that are gradually losing their light and are decaying.

Fourth Stanza

O holy Hope! and high Humility,

High as the heavens above!

These are your walks, and you have show’d them me

To kindle my cold love.

The poet changes the narrative in the fourth stanza as he addresses the divine power that has made it possible for him to observe these outward visions, experience these memories or dreams that are more real than real. He addresses God as holy Hope and high Humility. The poet mentions that this Godly act has saved his heart by warming it up.

The poet suggests that God is responsible for the ‘walks’ that he observes in his visions. The poet isn’t thanking God for this miracle, but he acknowledges it. For him, these visions are like a mirage that he wants to achieve, but cannot.

Fifth Stanza

Dear, beauteous Death! the jewel of the just,

Shining nowhere, but in the dark;

What mysteries do lie beyond thy dust

Could man outlook that mark!

In the fifth stanza, the poet addresses Death as the beautiful glorious jewel of right and just. The poet is enchanted by the mysteries beyond death, that is, the Afterlife. The poet asks if a living man can anyhow, come to know the secrets of Afterlife, life beyond death? Death is beauteous for the poet that shines in the dark because it is the boundary beyond which lies the treasure of mysteries that he wants to explore.

Sixth Stanza

He that hath found some fledg’d bird’s nest, may know

At first sight, if the bird be flown;

But what fair well or grove he sings in now,

That is to him unknown.

In the previous stanza, the poet described the death as a beautiful glorious jewel of justice. In the sixth stanza, the poet uses a metaphor to explain the beauty of death and man’s inability to see it.

The poet compares the search for the quest of death to looking into a bird’s nest to find the bird. But when the man looks into the nest, he finds that the bird has already flown away.

Just a glance at the nest will inform the man that the bird is no more in the nest, but he cannot get the answer for the quest, where the bird is singing now? The poet is enamored by the bliss of Afterlife that he can observe in his vision but cannot achieve.

Seventh Stanza

And yet as angels in some brighter dreams

Call to the soul, when man doth sleep:

So some strange thoughts transcend our wonted themes

And into glory peep.

The poet explains that one cannot feel the bliss of Afterlife without encountering death, a man can't understand the nature of death. Yet, there are moments when one gets a feeling of Divine. It happens when Angels help man by bringing some divine dreams and vision during his sleep. The angels bring some strange thoughts into the mind of a man as he sleeps. These unknown thoughts or visions transcend the normal life of a person to the glory of the afterlife.

Eighth Stanza

If a star were confin’d into a tomb,

Her captive flames must needs burn there;

But when the hand that lock’d her up, gives room,

She’ll shine through all the sphere.

The poet again uses a metaphor to explain how God helps men and allows them to flourish or die. He talks of a ‘star’ confined in a tomb. If the star is given the freedom to burn and thrive, it will shine throughout the sphere and will not remain confined within the tomb.

Ninth Stanza

O Father of eternal life, and all

Created glories under thee!

Resume thy spirit from this world of thrall

Into true liberty.

In the ninth quatrain, the poet starts developing the conclusion. He again addresses God as ‘Father of eternal life.’ He begs God to allow him and those like him to let them experience true liberty within this world. The liberty that his friend and relatives enjoy in the afterlife, he begs to have it while he is alive. He compares himself to the star confined in the tomb. The poet feels trapped by his life and he asks for more room to breathe, shine, and thrall. He begs God to bring him closer to the Divine to experience true liberty.

Tenth Stanza

Either disperse these mists, which blot and fill

My perspective still as they pass,

Or else remove me hence unto that hill,

Where I shall need no glass.

In the tenth stanza, the poet concludes his lamentation. He begs God to either clear the haze and confusion in his life and allow him to experience the bliss of true freedom. If it is not possible for a man to experience the divine without confronting death, the poet then asks God to let him in the Afterlife where everything will be clear and bright.

So this is it about They Are All Gone to The World of Light. We will continue to discuss a few more poems by Henry Vaughan. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!