The Aanatomy of Meloncholy by Robert Burton | Summary

 The Anatomy of Melancholy by Robert Burton

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Robert Burton was an English writer, fellow, clergyman, and cleric of Oxford University who took birth on 8^th February 1577 and died on 25^th January 1640. As a fellow of Oxford University, he became the Librarian of Christ Church Library in 1624 and remained a librarian there till his death. He was a poet, a dramatist, and a prose writer however, most of his works have been lost. One of the works that he wrote under a pseudonym as Democritus Junior became extremely successful at that time and is considered a pathbreaking work even now. It was titled The Anatomy of Melancholy that he wrote as medical work. However, he was not a physician nor a doctor. Yet, he devoted extensive time and efforts to proper research and studies before writing this work and took the help of quotations and references from various previous writers, thinkers, and physicians to assert his views regarding melancholy.

The Anatomy of Melancholy

The full title of this work that Burton wrote under the pseudonym of Democritus Junior was The Anatomy of Melancholy, What it is: With all the Kinds, Causes, Symptomes, Prognostickes, and Several Cures of it. In Three Maine Partitions with their several Sections, Members, and Subsections. Philosophically, Medicinally, Historically, Opened and Cut Up.

It is a huge and encyclopedic book containing more than 900 pages that explores a dizzying assortment of mental afflictions, including what might now be called depression. Burton considers melancholy to be an ‘inbred malady’ in all of us and admits that he is ‘not a little offended by it himself. The main subject of the book is Melancholia which includes but is not limited to clinical depression. Burton produced this book as a medical text however, it is considered a unique text of literature because it contains a lot of scientific and philosophical content. Furthermore, to assert evidence in his support, Burton mentions a huge number of case studies of melancholia in this book which included some important historical figures, and some fictional case studies including protagonists of Shakespearean plays and other famous stories.

Burton printed the Anatomy under the pseudonym of "Democritus Junior", alluding to the Greek pre-Socratic philosopher, Democritus, sometimes known as the Laughing Philosopher. To address the issue of Melancholy in his book,

Burton drew from nearly every science of his day, including psychology and physiology, but also astronomy, meteorology, theology, and even astrology and demonology. He took inspirations from the Hippocratic and Galenic corpus, and the writings of the late first-century physician Rufus of Ephesus, Arabic philosophers, and many more. The Anatomy contains a summary of the medical doctrines about melancholy as they had accumulated from the time of the Hippocratic corpus through to the early seventeenth century—though of course for the most part it is not presented as a historical survey of knowledge, but rather a theoretical treatise with immediate practical application.

The book was published in five revised and extended editions during burton’s lifetime and it continued to be reprinted. The anatomy of Melancholy is divided into three parts with various sub-parts. The first considers the nature, symptoms, and diverse causes of melancholy. These causes range from God to witches and devils, poverty and imprisonment, parents and ‘overmuch study’, ‘desire of revenge’, or ‘overmuch use of hot wines’. The second section discusses cures such as exercise and diet, purging, blood-letting, and potions. The third section focuses on two particular types – love melancholy and religious melancholy.

Melancholy

While discussing the plays of Ben Jonson, we explained the four types  of humors that were considered important in human life during that time. One of them is black bile which causes Melancholy. In the book, Burton mentioned that he himself was struggling against Melancholy as he says, "I writ of melancholy, by being busy to avoid melancholy. There is no greater cause of melancholy than idleness, no better cure than business.” Those were hard times of political upheaval across Europe. England was suffering plague and the tensions between Protestants and Catholics were at their peak. Puritans and Anglicans were also drawing swords against each other. In such a scenario, depression was a common problem that often people faced.

Burton classified melancholy into various kinds and one of them is Male and Female Melancholy. In this section, Burton examines the melancholy that drove Shakespeare’s Hamlet and also discusses the madness of Ophelia.

In the sub-section Maides, Nunnes, and Widows, Burton suggests that forced sexual abstinence can lead to melancholy. Burton mentions, “stale maids, nuns and widows, they are melancholy in the highest degree, and all for want of husbands.” He says that ‘noble virgins’ are particularly affected by “vitious vapours which come from menstruous blood”. He reports shocking tales of nuns who rebel against their “enforced temperance” and express their sexuality, leading to “frequent” abortions and “murdering infants in their Nunneries.” As a cure, Burton suggests that the “surest remedy” is to see them “married to good husbands” where they can fulfill their “desires”, and put out the “fire of lust.” At some point in the book, Burton mentions 'What have I to do with nuns, maids, virgins, widows? I am a bachelor myself, and lead a monastic life in a college.' But then he defends himself and suggests that a grown-up man like him with experience can offer the correct advice. Also, it indicates that his own ascetic life forced him to suffer melancholy that he to avoid by remaining busy in writing this huge work.

Burton devoted a major part of the third section to Love melancholy. Burton uses Shakespeare’s characters, as Sigmund Freud would do centuries later, as definitive examples of particular psychological types. For Burton, lovers who at first “cannot fancie or affect each other, but are harsh and ready to disagree” are ‘like Benedict and Betteris in the comedy’, Much Ado About Nothing. He claims that the best solution is to push the couple into marriage, so that love will grow out of closeness: “by this living together in a house, conference, kissing, colling [or embracing], and such like allurements, [they will] begin at last to dote insensibly one upon another”. Burton seems to sidestep the idea that, in Shakespeare’s play, the couple might love each other even before their friends intervene; we might see their witty disagreements as a subtle sign that they already 'fancie' each other.

Burton illustrates The tyranny of love over men in the following passage: "For an old fool to dote, to see an old lecher, what more odious, what can be more absurd ? ... How many decrepit, hoary, harsh, writhen, bursten bellied, crooked, toothless, bald, blear-eyed, impotent, rotten old men shall you see flickering still in every place? One gets him a young wife, another a courtesan, and when he can scarce lift his leg over a sill, and hath one foot already in Charon's boat when he hath the trembling in his joints, the gout in his feet, a perpetual rheum in his head, " a continuate cough," his sight fails him, thick of hearing, his breath stinks, all his moisture is dried up and gone . .. and very child again, that cannot dress himself, or cut his own meat, yet he will be dreaming of, and honing after wenches, what can be more unseemly ?" Similar invectives are' leveled against old women, who are just as bad.

Burton believes that Love is blind and irrational and says, "Though she be very deformed of herself, ill-favored, wrinkled, pimpled, pale, red, yellow, tanned, tallow-faced, have a swollen juggler's platter face or a thin, lean, chitty face . . . goggle-eyed, blear-eyed, or with staring eyes . .. have a sharp fox nose, a red nose, China flat . .. rotten teeth, black, uneven, brown teeth, beetle-browed, a witch's beard, her breath stink all over her room, her nose drips winter and summer, filthy long unpared nails ... gouty legs, her ankles hang over her shoes... If he love her once, he admires her for all this, he takes no notice of any such errors or imperfections of body and mind; he had rather have her than any womah in the world." Burton concludes, "there is no end of love's symptoms, 'tis a bottomless pit." Cure for love melancholy is first of all 'to be always occupied, seriously intent.' A lean diet is prescribed and young men should refrain from reading the Book of Genesis. All kinds of subterfuges are devised to put the unfortunate man off; think of what the fair maiden will be like when she grows old, ' one grows too fat, another too lean.'

The other subject of the third section is Religious Meloncholy, which is regarded as a branch of love melancholy, largely due to the concept held in Burton's age that the deprivation of love - God's love -was a cause of melancholy. He discusses Demonology in this section and offers a great many historical examples. Burton not only incorporated the spiritual concept of acedia and presented melancholy as a consequence of the Fall, but dissolved the boundary between medicine and theology—or more specifically, practical divinity—that his contemporaries had explicitly been observing. In one sense, this was uncontroversial. His remedies for the ‘Cure of Despair’ in the final Subsection contributed to the Christian ‘cure of souls’ tradition, and in many ways were typical of the Jacobean literature of spiritual comfort.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

For Whom the Bell Tolls by Ernest Hemingway | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. For Whom the Bell Tolls was another war novel by Ernest Hemingway that was published in the year 1940. Unlike his other two war novels that were based on World War I, this story revolved around the Spanish Civil War. During the Spanish Civil War that was fought from 1936 to 1939, many foreigners visited Spain to either help the government of the Second Spanish Republic supported by the Communist Soviet Union or the Nationalist faction which was supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

The Second World War began on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. America hadn’t entered the battlegrounds of World War II yet when this novel was published in 1940. The novel is divided into 43 chapters while it tells a story that happens for four days and three nights. The theme of this novel is again Love and War and the futility of war. The involvement of Americans and other foreigners in the Spanish Civil War was obvious as the Civil War was fought between two factions supported by different foreign powers. While the Republicans supported democracy and sided with the USSR, France, and Britain, the Nationalists sided with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

The title of the novel was inspired by Metaphysical poet John Donne’s Meditation XVII (No Man is an Island) from Devotions upon Emergent Occasions.

Hemingway used a part of Meditation 17 as an epigraph for his novel which says

“No man is an Island, entire of it selfe; every man is a piece of the Continent, a part of the maine; if a Clod bee washed away by the Sea, Europe is the lesse, as well as if a Promontorie were, as well as if a Mannor of thy friends or of thine owne were; any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankinde; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee.”

In these lines, Donne referred to the funeral bells. He was seriously ill during the time he wrote Devotions upon Emergent Occasion.

Characters:

Robert Jordon is the protagonist. He is a young American-Spanish professor who volunteers to help the Republicans in the Civil War. He is a detonator expert. Anselmo is a Loyalist Spanish Republican fighter who acts as a guide to Jordon for the completion of his mission. Anselmo is a brave, loyal, and true humanitarian who doesn’t regard supporters of the Nationalists as enemies but considers them poor citizens just like him, caught in a futile war. General Golz is the Russian general, practicing his war tactics as a Loyalist volunteer, who orders Jordan to blow the bridge. Pablo is the leader of the guerillas who help Jordan blow the bridge. Once a ruthless leader, Pablo is now afflicted by cowardice and cynicism. As he no longer wants to fight for the Cause, he makes difficulties for Jordan and threatens the completion of his mission. Pilar is Pablo's wife who is as bold as she is broad, and she keeps the band united through her personal example of patriotism. She is a palmist, and early in the novel foresees Jordan's death in his palm reading. Maria is the young girl the guerillas rescued from a prison train. Her father was a loyalist mayor, and the raped and battered Maria has been left an orphan. Maria and Jordan fall immediately in love. El Sordo is the deaf guerilla leader who Jordan and Pilar enlist in helping with the bridge mission. Rafael is a member of Pablo's band. He is referred to frequently as "the gypsy" and characterized as lazy but well-intentioned. Agustin is another member of the band; he is a devoted soldier. Fernando is another guerilla, and Jordan trusts him the most next to Anselmo. Andres is the guerilla Jordan sends to Golz with a message to cancel the attack. Kashkin was Jordan's friend and a famous Russian journalist. He was the previous detonator expert for General Golz who died in the war.

Summary

Robert Jordon is an American Spanish professor who decides to join the cause of the Loyalists against the Nationalists supported by Germany and Italy. He is appointed as a dynamite expert in the band of General Golz. General Golz is a cynical Russian soldier representing the International Brigade in Spain against the Fascists. His only intention is to experiment with his war tactics. He orders Robert to detonate a bridge within three days to weaken the enemies. Robert Jordon goes to survey the mountain terrain to observe the bridge that he is ordered to blast away. His mission is to destroy the bridge so that the fascists may not get any reinforcement over the bridge. Robert gets two bags full of dynamite to complete the mission while Anselmo accompanies him as a guide in the mountain region. Anselmo takes him to meet Pablo, a guerilla leader, and his men who were living in a hideout, an abandoned cave near the bridge. On the way, they meet Agustin, a guerilla of Pablo’s band. Through Agustin, Jordon learns that Pablo used to be a brave, loyal, and enthusiastic guerilla fighter but gradually he lost interest in the war and doesn’t want to get involved in the war anymore. The guard of the hideout and bridge is Rafael, a gypsy who is only interested in cracking jokes. Rafael tells Jordon about the previous detonator expert who committed suicide after being wounded during their last mission which was to explode a train. His name was Kashkin, a famous Russian journalist who was a close friend of Jordon. Rafael takes him to meet Pablo and Jordon realizes that Pablo is the most cynical of them. Pablo resents that a foreigner is interfering in the matters of his country and is leading them on a dangerous mission that may endanger his life and the life of his band members. He directly confronts Jordon and suggests that trying to detonate the bridge is foolhardy and they should not do that. However, his wife Pilar is a brave woman and a strong, able soldier. Despite Pablo showing cowardice and reluctance to fight anymore, Pilar is committed to serving her country and leads other guerillas to help Jordon in accomplishing the mission. Apart from Pilar, there is another woman with the group. She is a nineteen-year-old girl named Maria whose father was a brave loyalist mayor who was killed by the Fascist group. After the murder of her father, she was raped and brutalized and she still suffers the consequences of that brutality. Maria was shaved clean head by the fascists but despite her hair loss, she looks stunningly beautiful. When Jordon and Maria see each other, Jordon immediately falls in love with her. Maria also feels that Jordon’s love can help her in overcoming the brutal memories of her past.

At night, Pablo openly says that he is against blowing up the bridge, Pilar stands up and supports the mission. As a result, Pablo losses the position of the leader of the group of guerillas as all other guerillas including Raphael and Agustin vow to follow Pilar and support Jordon. Raphael suggests that Jordon should kill Pablo and become the leader of their band. However, Jordon says that unless there are no strong reasons, killing Pablo will mean the murder of an innocent man.

That night, Maria comes to the makeshift bed of Jordon outside the cave and they eagerly make love. Maria strongly believes that Jordon will rescue her from the memories of past atrocities committed to her. Jordon on the other hand realizes that he never felt such a strong feeling of love for any other woman and celebrates happiness in unity with another individual.

On the second day, Pablo continues to insult and cause trouble to Jordon as he tries to anyhow sabotage his mission. Jordon wonders if he did right by deciding not to kill him. The very next day, Jordon observes some airplanes of nationalists near the bridge. He wonders if the enemy has decided to opt for an offensive strategy or had they got some prior information about his ongoing mission to destroy the bridge. Pilar talks to Jordon and takes him and Maria to another guerilla camp whose leader is El Sordo. El Sordo is a brave guerilla but he is deaf. As Pilar explains about Jordon’s mission to El Sordo through signs, he reminds them that it is a highly dangerous mission. Nonetheless, he promises to help them. However, as soon as they leave El Sordo’s camp it begins to snow, and this further increases Jordon’s troubles. Now, if El Sordo tries to help Jordon by going to the bridge and fixing the dynamite to it, the footsteps of El Sordo will be easily traceable.

Jordon realizes that he doesn’t have much time nor does he have enough manpower and horses to accomplish the mission, yet, he is committed to his mission. His pensiveness and urgency are expressed through his urgent need to make love to Maria. As they make violent love, he feels "the earth move out and away from under them." Then afterward he asks María, "Did thee feel the earth move?", to which she responds affirmatively.

While Jordon grows highly pensive about his mission, Anselmo continues to encourage him. When Jordon goes to check Anselmo at his assigned post, he finds him loyally paying his duty despite the heavy snowstorm. Anselmo fills him with the hope of accomplishing his mission. Yet, Anselmo is sad and says that he won’t mind if he gets killed while executing the mission but he wants to avoid killing any other Spanish person and fears that he may be ordered to kill his own brethren on the enemy’s side. While others consider the enemy as evil fascists, Anselmo thinks of them as poor countrymen like themselves. He wonders if there is any good in the ongoing war and finds nothing good in it.

As Jordon returns to the cave, Pablo confronts him and tries to instigate him about his relationship with Maria. Jordan tries to goad him into fighting, as this would be an appropriate time to kill him for the sake of the mission. Pablo refuses to be baited, however, and later resumes a cooperative mood. Jordan trusts him less than ever and grows increasingly worrisome about the success of the mission.

The next morning, Jordon wakes up abruptly as he hears the sound of an approaching enemy horseman. Jordon timely gets attentive and shoots the soldier. The other group members frantically get up and gather their arms to face the situation. They hide as the other soldiers pass by their hideout. Jordon successfully manages to control them and keep them calm as Agustine wanted to shoot at the passing soldiers. Jordon carefully observes that the enemy are greater in number and they cannot outpower them. As the soldiers go away from their cave, they hear sounds of bombs coming from the side of El Sordo’s camp. The enemy soldiers had raided and bombed El Sordo’s camp. Primitivo, one of the guerillas urges Jordon to help El Sordo but Jordon declines and says that their primary goal is to destroy the bridge. The group of Fascist soldiers that attacked El Sordo’s camp was led by Lieutenant Berrendo. Before bombing El Sordo’s camp, he had a talk with his men that suggests neither of the sides actually wanted to fight and die, or kill others.

As the Fascist soldiers retreat, Jordon sends a guerilla to General Golz to inform him about the defeat of El Sordo and to request him to cancel the offensive mission of destroying the bridge.

Somehow, Jordon falls asleep after the turmoils of this disturbing day but he is awakened by Pilar at 2 O'Clock in the morning. Pilar informs him that Pablo has deserted the camp and he stole away one of the bags of dynamite that Jordon had, along with the set of detonators.

Jordon doesn’t have too much dynamite, nor does he has enough manpower, even El Sordo is no more to help him, and he has just lost the detonators. He sends another message to General Golz informing him about the loss of detonators and requests him to cancel the mission, however, he is not sure if his message will reach General Golz in time. It appears as if his mission is completely doomed, yet he manages to make love to Maria again before the sunrise and as the sun rises, he decides to execute his mission.

It appears necessary as Jordon realizes that the Fascists will soon use the bridge to take offensive actions. He takes Anselmo, Pilar, Agustin, Raphael, Primitivo, and Maria along with him and they leave their horses before reaching the bridge.

Meanwhile, Pablo returns to the cave to prove that he is not a coward after all. But he had already thrown the detonators in a river. Yet he takes the bag of dynamite back to the campsite. He also takes five new men to help his band in detonating the bridge. As he reaches the cave, he realizes that Jordon has gone to the bridge to perform the mission. He feels that his men will need horses to run away at the time of urgency. Thus, he decides to kill the five men he brought and takes their horses to help his men.

At the bridge, Pablo returns the second bag of dynamite to Jordon. Jordon orders Anselmo to kill the sentry guarding the bridge so that he may fix the dynamite to its pillars. Anselmo didn’t want to kill another countryman yet he finishes his task with teary eyes. Though Jordon doesn’t have detonators, the dynamite still can be blasted away with the help of bombs. As they dynamite the bridge, one of the falling rocks kills Anselmo. The Fascist soldiers notice them and attack them. In the ensuing fight, only Pablo, Pilar, Maria, Agustine, and Primitivo survive as Jordon gets hit by a shell when they try to run away on the horses brought by Pablo. Jordon refuses to be shot out of mercy and orders the other guerillas to run away as he will try to stop the fascist soldiers coming behind them and will buy more time for their safety. Maria cries and shouts and refuses to go away. Jordon assures her that they are now one, and she will find him wherever she goes, and thus explains the theme of the title taken from John Donne’s poem, indicating the connectedness, oneness of humans. Jordan fights pain and suicidal thoughts with the hope that he can buy time for the fleeing guerillas. The novel closes here, as Jordan awaits his certain death on the mountain terrain where he appeared on the first scene at the beginning of the novel.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Of Youth and Age by Francis Bacon | Summary, Analysis, and Important Quotations

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Of Youth and Age is an interesting essay by Francis Bacon which was published in the second edition of his book Essays in 1612. The first edition of "Essayes: Religious Meditations. Places of Perswasion and Disswasion. Seene and Allowed" was published in 1597 and it had 10 essays. The second edition contained 38 essays and the third edition was published in 1625 with the title “Essayes or Counsels, Civill and Morall” which contained 58 essays in total.

In this essay, Bacon offers a comparative study of the nature of youth and old age and how to apply them for the greater benefits of the business. He begins with exploring the demerits of youth and then explains the strong points and advantages of youth over old age. Again, he explains the drawbacks of old age and offers the merits of old age. After this extensive comparison, Bacon proposes a wise course of golden mean and suggests that the merits of both youth and old age should be employed in the business. In the end, he mentions some historical figures to assert his explanations.
Summary:

Bacon begins with the description of the drawbacks or flaws of youth. He says that while a young man may attain more experience than many old men, it is rare. He then mentions some important shortcomings of youth. He says that youth is liable to foolish thoughts. The errors of youth often prove fatal. It is because of certain characteristic weaknesses of youth such as attempting too much thinking only about the end, ignoring the means, holding on to imperfect principles, reckless innovations, extreme remedies, and reluctance to acknowledge errors.

Then Bacon describes the merits of youth. He says that youth has lively invention and imagination. Though youth is not so well fitted to judge or deliberate, it is fitter to invent and execute.

A man that is young in years may be old in hours if he has lost no time. Young men have a moral freshness, which the old lack. They are full of adventures and would not tolerate partial success. They are better capable of taking immediate decisions. Thus young people have many advantages over old people.

Bacon then begins discussing the shortcomings of old age. He says that “Men of age object too much, consult too long, adventure too little, repent too soon and seldom drive business home to the full period, but content themselves with a mediocrity of success.” While describing the merits of old age he says that old men are more experienced than young men and they are guided in their actions by their experience. But they are less imaginative, they argue too much, consult too long, are less adventurous, repent too soon and seldom push an affair right through the end. Even a little success satisfies them.

Bacon then offers his view over how to employ a combination of youth and old age for the betterment of the business. He advises that the merits of both young and old men should be employed in business which requires immediate efficiency, efficiency in the future, external success. This requires a combination of the moral freshness of youth and the political sagacity of old age. When both old men and young men are employed, young men will learn from their elders and will themselves grow older and thus have the advantages of old age also.

Then Bacon goes back to his initial point, that there can be some young men with more experience than many old men. He says that while some persons gain maturity before reaching their mature age, they soon decline to be dull-headed, just like the metal of good edge that becomes soon blunt.

To strengthen his views, Bacon offers examples from history to bring to light brings to light an important fact about young people. He points out that youth sometimes fails to fulfill its early promise. There are some, who have an early maturity, but their powers also fail early, and then they do not justify their promise. This happened with Hermogenes, the rhetorician, who lost all his mental powers by the time he was twenty-five years old. Secondly, some persons have some natural qualities, which are more becoming in youth than in age like Hortensius. He had a florid, passionate style. In oratory, this style suited him better as a young man than when he was old. He remained the same even in his old age. Then some begin with very high standards but are unable through a long period of years to maintain themselves at the height of greatness, which they have reached. This was the case with Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hanibal at Zama in 201 B.C. Scipio’s early career in Spain and Africa was very brilliant. At the time of his great victory in Zama, he was only thirty-five years of age. His later career in Asia Minor was not so brilliant.

Important Quotations

1) A man that is young in years may be old in hours, if he has lost no time. But that happenth rarely.

In these lines, Bacon says that a man who does not waste time may gain a lot of experience even at a young age. A man who utilizes all his time becomes more experienced than his age. But such men are found rarely.

2) Generally youth is like the first cogitations, not so wise as the second. For there is a youth in thoughts as well as in ages. And yet the invention of young man is more lively than that of the old, and imaginations stream into their minds better, and as it were more divinely.

Bacon compares age with thoughts and finds that young age is like the first preliminary thoughts which cannot be so wise as the second thoughts i.e. the matured thoughts which we find in old age. Meditation improves our ideas. The reason behind it is that young age is as much mental as physical. Young men are not able to think wisely. And yet, the new thoughts and views of young men are more lifelike than those of old people. The imaginative ideas flow in the minds of the young men and they are driven by divine inspiration. They flow fast and young people act fast.

3) Young men are fitter to invent than to judge; fitter for execution than for counsel and fitter for new projects than for settled business. For the experience of age, in things that fall within the compass of it directeth them; but in new things, abuseth them.

In these lines, Bacon says that certain things are not within the range of young men. They are only apt to invent because they are less experienced. They are capable of executing a thing because they have more vigor and vitality. But they are unable to give advice because their thoughts are not always so mature. They are fit for new projects because they have the enthusiasm and a craze for new things. But they are not meant for settled business because there is no use of their imaginative power and craze for action. The experience of age guides young people properly. Young men are more imaginative and active but they lack ripeness. They may commit blunders in executing a work, which may ruin the whole thing.

3) A certain Rabin, upon the text, your men shall see visions, and your old men shall see dreams inferreth that young men are admitted nearer to God than old because vision is a clearer revelation than a dream. And certainly, the more a man drinketh of the world, the more it intoxicateth; and age both profit rather in the powers of understanding, than in the virtues of the will and affections.

Bacon says that a certain Rabin (an expert on Jewish Laws) said that young men see visions while old men only dream. That is to say that young men are nearer to God than the old. A vision is a clearer expression than a dream. A dream is a sleeping imagination while a vision is an awaking description. A man who lives more in the world knows more secrets of the world. Old age profits a man in the power of understanding. An old man is experienced rather than passionate. Bacon says that the effect of age and experience on a man is that it increases his power of understanding. A young man has greater power of will, which enables him to execute a job better. Their thoughts and feelings are purer. They have a moral freshness, which the older people lack in. This is youth’s advantage over age which benefits their ability to act.
4) Young men, in the conduct and manage of actions, embrace more than they can hold; stir more than they can quiet; fly to the end, without consideration of the means and degrees; pursue some few principles which they have chanced upon absurdly; care not to innovate, which draws unknown inconveniences; use extreme remedies at first; and that, which doubleth all errors, will not acknowledge or retract them, like an unruly horse, that will neither stop nor turn.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. A Farewell to Arms was a lyrical poem by George Peel that he wrote for the occasion of the retirement ceremony of Queen Elizabeth I in 1590 in which he pledged his undying loyalty to the queen and addressed her as Goddess. Ernest Hemingway took this title for his war novel that was published in 1929. It is a first-person account of an American, Frederic Henry, serving as a lieutenant in the ambulance corps of the Italian Army during World War I. While the novel is set against the backdrop of World War I, it tells the love story of Frederick Henry and an English nurse Catherine Barkley. It proved to be one of the most successful novels of Ernest Hemingway and is considered "the premier American war novel from that debacle World War I." The novel is not an autobiography but the novel was based on Hemingway's own experiences serving in the Italian campaigns during the First World War.

A real nurse named Agnes von Kurowsky cared for Hemingway in a hospital in Milan when he was injured. Hemingway had planned to marry her but they broke off when he returned to America.

Characters: Henry Frederick is an American who leaves America to take part in World War I (as America is yet not involved). He joins Italian forces as a Lieutenant. Miss Catherine Barkley is an English Nurse working in Italy. She lost her fiance in the war and gradually she falls in love with Henry. Surgeon Rinaldi is an Army surgeon who is friendly to Henry. The priest is an army chaplain who develops a friendship with Henry and often engages in discussions with Henry about war and God. Helen Ferguson is a nurse and friend of Catherine. Miss Van Campen is the head nurse of an American hospital in Milan. She has a disliking against Henry. Miss Gage is a friendly nurse who often works unconventionally. Major Valentini is an Italian army doctor who operates Henry’s knee when wounded. Ralph Simmons is an opera singer whom Henry meets in Milan.

Other minor characters include some Italian soldiers (Gino, Bonello, Piani, Passini) and a bartender Emilio. Count Greffi is an old nobleman of Switzerland.

Summary:

The novel is divided into five parts. Being a war fiction, the whole book is set in the historical background of World War 1. World War I or the Great War began in August 1914 with the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand. The war pitted the Central Powers (Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire) against the allied forces of Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy, who were joined in 1917 by the United States. The action of A Farewell to Arms takes place from 1916-18 in four locations, for the most part: 1) the Julian Alps, along what was then the border between Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire; 2) the city of Milan, which lies in the plains of northern Italy, far from the front; 3) the Italian resort town of Stresa on Lake Maggiore, which straddles the border between Italy and Switzerland; and 4) various towns and villages of the Swiss Alps.

In the beginning, the Italian forces are busy trying to stop Austro-Hungarian forces from assisting German forces on western and eastern forces. Russia withdrew from the war in 1917 due to Communist Revolution while the United States decided to take the side of Italy, France, and Britain in the same year. At the beginning of the novel, The novel's narrator, and the protagonist are eventually identified as Lieutenant Frederic Henry, an American who has volunteered for the Italian army because the United States has not yet entered the war. Henry supervises a group of Italian ambulance drivers.

Book 1

As the winter begins, a deadly epidemic of cholera kills thousands of soldiers and as a medic, Frederick is sent to Gorizia for a brief period. In Gorizia, Henry learns the hierarchy of the army as there are two brothels, one set for officers, while the other is for lower-rank soldiers. Henry makes friends with a few army personnel and the priest of the army. Soon situations improve and he returns to his base where he shares his experience with one of his friends Surgeon Rinaldi. Rinaldi takes interest in beautiful women and later he fell in love with a beautiful nurse named Miss Catherine Barkley. Though Rinaldi is not very serious about Catherine, he admires her. One day, Rinaldi takes Henry to his hospital and introduces him to Catherine Barkley, a British nurse who recently lost her fiance in the war. Henry feels attracted to Catherine and they develop a rapport. Catherine shares her sadness about the demise of her fiance with Henry and tells him how she feels uncomfortable when it rains. As it starts raining, Henry tries to kiss her but Catherine slaps him but then she feels sorry about it. At last, Catherine starts feeling comfortable and Henry kisses her. Henry is then sent to the Italian front in the war. He takes an ambulance along with fellow drivers Passini, Manera, Gordini, and Gavuzzi. They face a mortar attack and Passini gets killed while Henry suffers a serious knee injury.

Book 2

Henry is admitted to the hospital where Rinaldi visits him. Rinaldi praises him for Henry’s bravery but Henry says that he did nothing brave. Rinaldi says that his injury is serious and hence, he will be sent to Milan in the American hospital. Henry requests him to send Catherine to Milan too. Rinaldi realizes that Henry and Catherine are developing a relationship and he feels happy about it. The Priest also pays a visit to see Henry and they discuss the war. Henry expresses his views against war. Meanwhile, America declares war against Germany while the Austrian army is also infiltrating Italian borders. Henry is sent to Milan where he is nursed by Miss Gage, Miss Walker, and head nurse Miss Van Campen. While Van Campen is a strict lady, Miss Gage is too friendly and she arranges wine for Henry in the hospital which is prohibited. Soon Catherine arrives in Milan too and Henry and she begin a steamy relationship as they make love in the hospital bed.

Doctor Valentini visits the hospital to check Henry. Soon his knee improves but Henry is forced to spend more time in the hospital as he is found to be suffering from jaundice. Miss Van Campen finds out the bottles of wine and realizes the reason for his jaundice. Van Campen also realizes that Henry is knowingly keeping himself ill so that he may avoid the war while he is having a good time with Catherine. She reports against him and suggests canceling his convalescent leave. Henry is ordered to go to the war front but before he could go, Catherine informs him that she is pregnant. Henry promises her that he will return soon to meet Little Catherine, his daughter, and goes to the war.

Book 3

Frederick returns to Gorizia to join the war. Lieutenant Rinaldi greets him and checks his knee. He asks if Frederick has married Catherine. The priest also meets Frederick and notices a certain change in his behavior. The priest suggests that the war may end soon. Frederick is then ordered to go to Bainsizza. At Bainsizza, Frederick comes to know about a new artillery battery of terrifying guns that Austrians have. He notices that the morale of Italian soldiers is at a remarkable low as if they have accepted defeat. Soon the Austrian forces infiltrate the Italian lines at the Battle of Caporetto. The Italian forces decide to retreat. Frederick goes to visit Rinaldi to go back with him but finds that Rinaldi has already left for the hospital. To avoid an aerial attack, Frederick and his men decide to go back through an alternative path while the main route is too busy because citizens were also being transported to safer places. However, their cars get stuck in the mud. Another car was driven by Bonello with whom two engineering sergeants were also traveling. Frederick calls them and asks for their help. Afraid of being overtaken by the enemies, the sergeants refuse to help Frederick and try to run away. Frederick shoots at them and kills one of the engineers while the other escapes. Meanwhile, one of the drivers of Bonello’s car also gets killed by enemy fire. Bonello gets too afraid and runs towards Austrian forces to surrender. Frederick decides to run away with Piani and reach the main retreat along the river Tagliamento. As they reach the bridge on the river, Frederick sees that the Italian forces are asking the retreating soldiers why they ran away from the battle lines and shooting them for their cowardice. Frederick thinks that he will also be shot dead and hence decided to jump in the river and escape. Then he gets out of the river and catches a train to Milan to seek Catherine.

Book 4

At Milan, Henry comes to know that Catherine and Helen Ferguson have left for Stresa. He seeks the help of Ralph Simmons, an Opera singer whom he met before. Ralph Simmons arranges some civilian clothes for Henry and tells him how to reach Switzerland. Anyhow, Henry reaches Stresa and stays at the hotel Isle Borromees. While he keeps searching for Catherine, a bartender named Emilio who works at Isles Borromees tells him that he knows two English nurses who are staying at a small hotel near the railway station. Frederick visits the hotel and meets Catherine and Helen Ferguson. At the same hotel, he meets Count Greffi a Swiss nobleman who is staying at that hotel with his niece. Catherine asks Henry about his war experience but Henry avoids her questions as he feels guilty as a war deserter. Emilio informs him that the Italian police are still searching for him. Catherine and Frederick plan to flee to Switzerland to avoid Frederick’s arrest. Emilio arranges for a boat and other necessities for Catherine and Frederick. However, the waters are rough because of a storm. Anyhow, Catherine and Frederick reach Switzerland and when Swiss guards check them, they show the papers they arranged with the help of Count Greffi. The guards provide them provisional visas.

Book 5

Catherine and Frederick start living in the Swiss mountains in a small cottage outside the village of Montreux. While Catherine is pregnant, she often gets worried about her baby yet to be born, especially about the baby's health. Finally, Frederick and Catherine decide to move to the town of Laussane and reside near a hospital. Soon, Catherine starts suffering labor pain and Frederick takes her to the hospital. After checking her, the doctor suggests that a cesarean operation would be best for Catherine. During the operation, Catherine suffers a lot of pain and finally delivers a still-born baby boy. While Federick is very sad about it, the nurse informs him that Catherine is hemorrhaging. Frederick gets worried and goes to see her. Catherine loses her life in Frederick’s arms. He leaves the hospital and as he walks back to the hotel, rain starts pouring into the streets. Frederick remembers how rain used to disturb Catherine.

So this is it about A Farewell to Arms. We will continue to discuss the history of American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Pilgrim’s Progress is a Christian allegory which means that at one hand, the book tells a story of a man leaving the City of Destruction to the Celestial City of Heaven, at another hand, it tells about the general life of everyman and how one should strive for a better pious Christian life away from sins. It is a two-part book. Book 1 was published in the year 1678 and Book 2 was published in 1684.

The full title of Book 1 is The Pilgrim's Progress from This World, to That Which Is to Come. John Bunyan was in jail when he wrote this book. One day when he was sleeping in jail, he saw a dream and he reproduced the idea of that dream in form of a book. The opening line of The Pilgrim’s Progress is ‘As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream ’. The den in this sentence symbolizes the imprisonment where Bunyan was jailed. The entire book 1 is presented as dream sequences narrated by an omniscient narrator, a narrator who already knows everything about the story, characters, and events, and just letting the readers know.

Summary of Book 1

In the City of Destruction, there lived a man who was born with the name Graceless. The city stands as a symbol of the entire world as it is, with all of its sins, corruption, and sorrows. Like other people, Graceless was also leading an ignorant life while engaging in all sorts of sins and suffering the consequences. One day, he got hold of a book (Bible) and as he read and learned it, he became Christian and that became his new name. His wife is Christina and the couple has two children. As he continued reading his book, he realized a certain burden on his back that he felt was difficult to keep but couldn’t reduce. He realized that this burden will cause him to sink into Hell. It was so unbearable that he sought help to get relief. He got help from another man named Evangelist who directed him to the Wicket Gate. Christian fails to see the Wicket Gate which is at a distance, so, Evangelist directs him to the shining light that Christian can see. Evangelist tells him to go to the Wicket Gate where Christian could deliver his burden.

Christian returns to his home and tells everything to his wife Christina. He tells her that he is leaving home to go to the Wicket Gate and she must also accompany him. However, Christina and their children mock Christian and discourage him from going to the Wicket Gate. Christian feels sad but he is determined. He leaves his home, wife, and children and goes towards the Shining Light. Two of his neighbors, Obstinate and Pliable run before him to get him back to his home and Christina. However, they fail to persuade Christian to return. Obstinate returns disgusted while Christian manages to persuade Pliable to accompany him on his pilgrimage. Pliable decides to go with Christian hoping to take advantage of the Paradise that Christian claims lie at the end of his journey.

During their journey towards the shining light representing the Wicket Gate, they fall into the Slough of Despond. It is a boggy-mire-like swamp in which when pilgrims fall, their doubts, fears, temptations, lusts, shames, guilts, and sins of their past become so heavy that they often drown in the mud of the swamp. Both Pliable and Christian struggle in the swamp and Pliable decides to get back to the bank and he abandons Christian. Christian continues to struggle against doubts, fears, temptations, lusts, shames, guilts, and sins and he is helped out by another pilgrim named Help who pulls him out of the swamp. Help says that the mud of the swamp is made of decadence, scum, and filth of sin, but the ground is good at the narrow Wicket Gate.

Christian continues his journey towards the Wicket Gate which allegorically represents Christ. Soon he meets Mr. Worldly Wiseman who extols the virtue of secular ethics and persuades Christian to seek another way to get rid of his burden. He says that Christian should visit the Village of Morality where he will get help from Mr. Legality and his son Civility in getting rid of his burden. Christian has already observed the difficulties of his journey so he decides to take the advice of Mr. Worldly Wise and goes towards the Village of Morality. Near Mount Sinai, Christian again meets Evangelist who exposes Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Legality and Civility for the frauds they are. Christian sees that the home of Legality is hanging over the road and threatens anyone trying to pass the road. The mountain is also flashing with fire. Evangelist says that they often try to misdirect pilgrims from choosing the right path. Christian understands his fault and returns to his path towards the Wicket Gate. As he approaches the Wicket Gate, Beelzebub’s archers fire arrows at him from the Beelzebub castle near the Wicket Gate. The Gatekeeper Goodwill of Wicket Gate saves him and shows "straight and narrow" King's Highway that he needs to follow further. Goodwill represents Jesus who directs Christian to the ‘place of deliverance.’

As Christian moves forward, he reaches the House of Interpreter where he is shown some emblems showing pictures and tableaux of Christian life and faith. Finally, Christian reaches the ‘place of Deliverance’ (allegorically the cross of Cavalry and sepulcher of Christ and Christian gets rid of the burden of his sins. As soon as he releases the burden of sins, three angels appear in front of him and offer him the greeting of peace, new garments, and a scroll as a passport into the Celestial City. Celestial City allegorically represents Heaven and now, Christian has a new motive to reach Heaven. As he proceeds, he meets three men named Simple, Sloth, and Presumption. Christian, now being freed from his burden, tries to help them. However, none of the three heeds to his advice. As Christian continues his journey and reaches the Hill of Difficulties, he again meets two men named Formality and Hypocrisy. All the three reaches near the Hill and as they try to cross the two bypass to the Hill named Danger and Destruction, Formality and Hypocrisy perish while proving that they are false Christians. Christian successfully crosses the bypasses and continues further uphill. As he reaches atop the Hill, he feels tired and falls asleep. While asleep, he loses his scroll and when he wakes up, he is forced to back down and bring the scroll back. When he returns back to the top of the Hill of Difficulty, he meets two weak pilgrims named Mistrust and Timorous. They inform him about the great lions of the Palace Beautiful. Soon they meet a porter named Watchful. As they reach Palace Beautiful, Watchful informs that all of them are chained and are being observed to test their faith. Christian is frightful of lions and tries to avoid them with help of Watchful while Mistrust and Timorous succumb. Palace Beautiful is a place made by God for the rest of the pilgrims. Christian spends three days here and leaves after getting new clothes and Armour of God that will further help him fight against a dragon-like demon named Apollyon. Christian fights against Apollyon for over half a day in the Valley of Humiliation. Apollyon is the Lord and God of the City of Destruction. At last, Christian manages to stab and wound Apollyon with his two-edged sword allegorically representing the Bible. Wounded Apollyon then spreads his wings and flies away.

Christian continues his journey and reaches the Valley of the Shadow of Death. As Christian faces the intense gloom, terror, and demons of the Valley of the Shadow of Death, he hears a voice reciting the Twenty Third Psalm of his book. Later on, he learns that this voice was of another pilgrim named Faithful who becomes his friend. He continues his journey and reaches the exit of the Valley as the sun rises. Just outside the valley, he meets another pilgrim named Faithful. Just like Christian, Faithful was also a former resident of the City of Destruction. Together, they continue their journey and reach Vanity Fair. It is a place made by Beelzebub to lure the pilgrims. The place has everything tasteful and entertaining corrupted with all sorts of sins attractively. Faithful, and Christian successfully avoid any deterrence and ignore the goods of Vanity Fair. Both of them soon is arrested by the soldiers of Beelzebub for attacking their King, disrespecting their God, and disdain for the business and goods of the Fair. Faithful is executed by burning at the stake as a martyr. As he dies, a celestial chariot appears and takes him away to the Celestial City. Christian still has a long way to reach there. As Christian moans about the loss of Faithful, a resident of Vanity Fair named Hopeful takes his side and accompanies him on his journey.

As Christian and Hopeful proceed, a false pilgrim named By-Ends and his friends start following them to take advantage. Christian and Hopeful reach the mountain Lucre where the owner of the mountain and its silver mines named Demas offers them all the silver of his mines. Christian realizes the trickery of Demas and they decide to avoid the mines. However, the false pilgrim By-Ends and his friend get in the lure and perish in the mines of Lucre.

Christian and Hopeful travel further on the rough, stony stretch of road and soon they see an easier, green By-Path meadow. They decide to leave the road and travel through the meadow. Soon a rainstorm engulfs them and they are forced to spend the night in the shadows of trees. As the morning sun arises they are captured by Giant Despair and his wife Giantess Diffidence. Giant Despair takes them to his Doubting Castle where they are tortured, beaten, and starved. The Giant and Giantess want them to commit suicide as a result of the torture. Christian and Hopeful resist and continue to suffer their ordeal. Soon Christian realizes that he has a key called Promise that can help him in opening up all the gates of Doubting Castle so that they can escape. Using the key and Giant’s weakness against sunlight, they escape the Doubting Castle.

As they move further, they reach the Delectable Mountains where they meet some shepherds who show them the wonders of Immanuel’s Land. They are also cautioned against sinning by the sights of Hill Error also known as Mountain Caution. The shepherds offer them their perspective glasses by using which, Christian and Hopeful manage to see the Celestial City from the top of Mount Clear. The shepherds then pay farewell while cautioning Hopeful and Christian against Flatterer and the Enchanted Ground. As Christian and Hopeful leave the Delectable Mountains, they reach a crossroad and wonder which way to proceed. A man dressed in white cloth appears before them and they mistake him as the ‘shining one.’ The man leads them to a path and soon they find themselves trapped in a net. Then Christian realizes that the man must be the Flatterer. The real shining one (Angel) then appears and rescues them. The Angel punishes them for following Flatterer and shows them the right path.

As Christian and Hopeful proceed on the right path, they meet a man named Atheist. He says that Heaven and God do not exist. Christian and Hopeful remember the shepherds and the sight of the Celestial City they saw through their telescope and ignore him. As they proceed, they meet another man named Wanton Professor who is chained by the ropes of seven demons. He takes them to the Lake of Fire (Hell). Seeing this, Christian remembers another man whom he met whose name was Little Faith. His all belongings were stolen by thieves and he was forced to suffer despondency. However, he managed to save his scroll and jewels that he kept safe throughout the journey.

As Christian and Hopeful proceed, they meet a boy named Ignorance. Hopeful and Christian try to convince him to follow the right path and accept God. But Ignorance believes that his own good deeds will take him to the Celestial City and he does not need to follow the path of Hopeful and Christian. Ignorance continues on his own path and crosses the River of Death on the ferry boat of Vain Hope while avoiding the dangers of the river by wading across it. As soon as he reaches the Gate of Celestial City, the shining ones appear and ask for the passport that he didn’t have because he didn’t come through the Wicket Gate and Kings Highway. The Lord of the Celestial City orders the angels to take Ignorance to one of the by-ways to Hell and throw him in.

As Christian and Hopeful observe all this, they get involved in a deep discourse over the nature of their salvation and manage to overcome the dangers of Enchanted Ground about which the shepherds had warned them. After crossing the Enchanted Ground, they reach the Land of Beulah where they prepare themselves to cross the dreadful River of Death on foot to Mount Zion from where they could reach the Gates of Celestial City. Christian suffers while wading through the River of Death because of his past sins and is about to be drowned. However, Hopeful helps him in reaching the other bank. As they reach the gates of Celestial City, they show their passports to the Gatekeepers, and then they are welcomed into the Celestial City. Thus, the journey of the pilgrims reaches its heavenly end.

Second Book

The second book of the Pilgrim’s Progress talks about Christina, her children, and the maiden Mercy. Christian’s wife realizes her mistake in not following her husband and decides to proceed on the pilgrimage with her son. A maiden Mercy accompanies them. All of them go through the same difficulties of the journey that were mentioned in book 1. However, they make an additional stoppage at Gaius’ Inn. Furthermore, this second set of Pilgrims takes a longer time because the four sons of Christina get married during the journey and their spouses accompany them. At the House of Interpreter, these pilgrims get the help of Greatheart, a servant of the Interpreter who guides them to the Celestial City. Greatheart kills four demons on the path namely Giant Grim, Giant Maul, Giant Slay-Good, and Giant Despair, and participates in the slaying of a monster called Legion that terrorizes the city of Vanity Fair.

So this is it about The Pilgrim’s Progress. We will continue to discuss the history of English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

John Bunyan | Life and Death of Mr Badman | Holy War | Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. John Bunyan was an English writer and Puritan preacher who suffered imprisonment after the restoration of the monarch Charles II for 12 years. During his period of imprisonment, he wrote some nine works which included some of his finest literary works including Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and began writing his magnum opus The Pilgrim’s Progress. Bunyan took birth in the Parish of Elstow, Bedford in 1628 and he died on 31^st August 1688. His father was a tinker from whom Bunyan also learned the art of tinkering and mending utensils. He began his professional career as a tinker and used to visit different towns searching for jobs mending utensils and other homely appliances. Initially, Bunyan was not a religious person. In 1644, he was enlisted as a soldier in the Parliamentary army. He mentioned some incidences of this period in his work Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. Bunyan left the army in 1647 and he got married sometime during 1649. His wife was a pious woman who had a strong influence on John Bunyan. Gradually, he turned towards religion. Bunyan mentioned in Grace Abounding: "So that until I came to the state of Marriage, I was the very ringleader of all the Youth that kept me company, in all manner of vice and ungodliness". One day, Bunyan had a vision in which he heard a voice from Heaven asking him "Wilt thou leave thy sins, and go to Heaven? Or have thy sins, and go to Hell?" That incident completely changed Bunyan and he strived to become a pious man of God. He then became an active member of the parish church of Elstow and soon began teaching as a preacher. In 1656, Bunyan published his first book titled Gospel Truths Opened in which he highlighted the dispute between Ranters and Quackers. Those were the time of religious tolerance but soon Charles II was restored to the throne of England and he had some reservations against Puritans and Non-Anglicans. The King issued an ordinance according to which no one could preach in any church unless he has got a license as a preacher. John Bunyan had no license and he refused to apply for a license. As he continued to preach, an arrest warrant was issued against him. He could have avoided jail term by restraining from preaching but he chose not to succumb to the pressure and ultimately he was arrested and sentenced to 12 years in jail.

John Bunyan was in jail when he published Grace Abounding in 1666. The full title of this work was Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, or a Brief Relation of the Exceeding Mercy of God in Christ to His Poor Servant John Bunyan. In this work, Bunyan expressed that despite him being involved in all sorts of sins, God showed mercy on him, forgave him, and offered chances to mend his ways. Obviously, he was mentioning the time before his vision and first marriage when he used to be irreligious. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners is a spiritual autobiography of John Bunyan. He mentioned many memories and anecdotes of his life t suggest how God showered mercy on him. In this book, he also mentioned how during his army days, when once he was about to go to besiege a place from the enemies, one of his fellow soldiers demanded him to let him go to which he agreed. However, when his fellow soldier reached there, he was shot dead. Bunyan suggests that despite him being a sinner at that time, God saved him for better purposes. The title of this autobiography of John Bunyan contains allusions to two Biblical passages. 'Grace Abounding' is a reference to the Epistle to the Romans 5:20, which states 'Where sin abounded, grace did much more abound' and 'Chief of Sinners' refers to the First Epistle to Timothy 1:15, where Paul refers to himself by the same appellation.

The Life and Death of Mr. Badman

'The Life and Death of Mr. Badman' was again a religious allegory by John Bunyan which was published in the year 1680 as a companion book to his previously published book The Pilgrim’s Progress. It is a religious dialogue between two people Mr. Wiseman and Mr. Attentive about a dead man named Mr. Badman. The Courteous Reader is also addressed within the book by the author assumed to be a probable sinner. The author asks the courteous reader seriously to consider Mr. Badman's life and to decide whether or not he is following him on the road to destruction.

Mr. Wiseman is the author’s narrator who tells to Mr. Attentive the story of the late Mr. Badman's evil life. Each sinful episode related by Mr. Wiseman brings forth from him or his listener a kind of sermon or the recitation of a series of edifying examples designed to prove the author's point to his readers. Mr. Attentive, the listener to, and commentator on, Mr. Wiseman's account of Mr. Badman's wicked career.

Mr. Badman is a sinner. He is lately dead and the subject of a dialogue that makes up this story. The very epitome of evil, Mr. Badman is used, in a conversation between Mr. Wiseman and Mr. Attentive, as a model of what happens to the unrepentant sinner as he makes his heedless way through life. His evil-doing begins while he is yet a child; one sin begets another until the sinner's corruption is complete. The author expects his reader to rejoice in the punishment Mr. Badman so richly deserves. Mr. Wiseman says, “As his life was full of sin, so his death was without repentance.” Throughout a long sickness, Badman fails to acknowledge his sins, remaining firm in his self-satisfaction. He dies without struggle, “like a chrisom child, quietly and without fear.” However, Mr. Badman did not earn the four themes that the funeral of any great man should get. First is that there is no wrought image of Mr. Badman that may serve as a memorial. Second, Mr. Badman died without honor and didn’t get any badge or accolade. Third, Mr. Badman didn’t deserve a sermon and forth, no one will mourn and lament his death. After that, Mr. Wiseman describes the sort of Hell awaiting Mr. Badman, citing Scripture.

John Bunyan’s The Holy War

In 1682, John Bunyan published a novel titled The Holy War. The full title of the novel was The Holy War Made by King Shaddai Upon Diabolus, to Regain the Metropolis of the World, Or, The Losing and Taking Again of the Town of Mansoul. It is an allegorical novel that tells the story of a town named Mansoul (Man’s Soul). The ruler of this town is King Shaddai. The town is perfect and reflects the image of King Shaddai. However, a deceiver deceives the people of the town and makes people rebel and throw off King Shaddai’s gracious rule, replacing it instead with the rule of Diabolus, the deceiver. Under the influence of Diabolus, Mansoul rejects the Kingship of Shaddai but King Shaddai sends his son Emanuel to reclaim the town.

It is an allegorical novel that retells the Biblical story of the fall, conversion, fellowship with Emmanuel, and many more intricate doctrines. El Shaddai is one of the Judai names of Almighty God whereas, Emmanuel literary means God is with us and refers to Christ in Isaiah 7: 14.

King Shaddai’s town Mansoul had three distinguished men holding authority named “Understanding”, “Conscience”, and “Lord WillbeWill.” All these three are corrupted by Diabolous which refers to Satan. The three give entry to Diabolus in town and help him in throwing out the King. As a result, “Understanding” the mayor of the town loses his eyes, Conscience” the recorder of the town loses his mind and becomes a madman. Lord WillbeWill becomes a pawn of Diabolus and is forced to serve him. As a result, the townspeople can't return to sanity and accept the rule of King Shaddai again by their own will. While King Al Shadai is sad over the situation, his son Emmanuel decides to take the town Mansoul back from the grip of Diabolus. Diabolus has his own cohort. Ill-Pause is his servant who slays Lord Innocence. Incredulity is a friend of Diabolous who leads his army against Mansoul against Emmanuel. He is one of the two mayors of Mansoul under the rule of Diabolus. Lusting is the other mayor and friend of Diabolus. Forget Good is another confidante of Diabolous who is appointed as the new recorder of Mansoul after Conscience goes mad under his rule.

Meanwhile, Mansoul suffers mismanagement. The mayor Understanding cannot see light and hence cannot differentiate between right and wrong. The recorded Conscience has gone mad and Lord WillbeWill is a forced servant of Diaobolous. The only way of rescue and restoration is through the victory of Emmanuel over Diabolus. Boanerges, Conviction, Judgement, Execution, Credence, Good-Hope, Charity, Innocence, and Patience are the nine Captains leading the army of Shaddai against Diabolus. Eventually, Emmanuel wins over Diabolus and The Secretary, who is equal to King Shaddai, and Emmanuel is given the charge of Mansoul after victory of Emmanuel. However, another Diabolian Carnal-Security causes Mansoul to break fellowship with Emmanuel again after He had so graciously saved the city. As we can see, this novel by John Bunyan is heavily based on Christian theology.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the History of English Literature and in the next video, we will discuss John Bunyan’s magnum opus The Pilgrim’s Progress in detail. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.