Untouchable by Mulk Raj Anand | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mulk Raj Anand was an Indian writer who prominently wrote in English and popularized Anglo-Indian fiction through his novels and short stories. He was a socialist who engaged in himself in the Indian Independence Movement. However, most of his novels and short stories attack various aspects of India's social structure, social biases, caste system, as well as the legacy of British rule in India. He is especially known to shed light on the lives of lower caste people who are treated with great bias and unfairness. Almost all of his novels and short stories like Untouchable, Coolie, The Big Heart, Two leaves and a Bud, etc. touch on the problems of the political structure, oppression of classes, untouchability, and so on. Anand was born on 12 December 1905 in Peshawar of British India, now a part of Pakistan. He died on 28 September 2004 at the age of 98 in Pune of Independent India. He completed his graduation from Khalsa College, Amritsar in 1924, and then he earned a Ph.D. in Philosophy from Cambridge University, England. His dissertation was on Bertrand Russell and English Empiricists. Bertrand Russell was known for his anti-imperialist ideas as he chaired the Indian League during the 1930s.

During his days in England, he came in contact with T.S Eliot and worked for his magazine Criterion. He grew a friendship with E.M. Forster who was also working for Criterion. His first novel was Untouchable which was published in the year 1935 and its introduction was written by E.M. Forster. During World War II, Anand worked as a scriptwriter for BBC in London, and during that period, he came close to George Orwell who wrote an appreciating review of his 1942 novel The Sword and The Sickle. Some other important novels by Mulk Raj Anand include Coolie (1936), The Village (1939), Across The Black Waters (1939), and The Private Life of An Indian Prince (1953). He was offered the International Peace Prize of 1951 and in 1971, his English novel Morning Face won the Sahitya Academy Award in India. In 1967, he was offered Padma-Bhushan, the third-highest civilian award in the Republic of India.

Characters of Untouchable by Mulk Raj Anand

Bakha is a young Indian boy belonging to the low sweeper caste who is the son of the head of his town’s sweeper caste. Bakha is an intelligent boy with an inquisitive mind. His father Lakha is a strict person who wants his son to understand his place in society and perform his tasks appropriately, while he is lazy and tries to avoid his duties. Bakha doesn’t appreciate his work as a sweeper. The story is about the experiences of Bakha during a single day. Bakha’s mother died after giving birth to Rakha, his younger brother. Bakha believes that his father turned sour and abusive right after her death. Sohini is Bakha’s elder sister.

Charat Singh is a military sentry of the town who doesn’t care about caste biases though he belongs to a high caste. Chota and Ramcharan are his two friends. Chota and Ramcharan belong to the washerman caste which is considered higher. Gulabo is the mother of Ramcharan who doesn’t like the friendship of his son with Bakha as he belongs to a lower caste. She is jealous of Sohini too as Sohini is very beautiful. Bakha likes Ramcharan’s sister but her marriage has been fixed and he is not happy about it but he knows he could never marry her because she belongs to a higher caste. Waziro is another woman who belongs to the weaver’s caste. Unlike Gulabo, she isn’t mean to people of lower castes. Pundit Kalinath is the priest and is in charge of the town’s temple. He is a corrupt person who tries to exploit Sohini for her sexual appeal. Burra babu is an influential high-caste man of the town whose sons are of the same age as Bakha. They invite him to a match of hockey. The Doctor of the town, a high-caste man who is also very benevolent and duty-bound saved Bakha’s life when he was terminally ill during his childhood. Colonel Hutchinson is an English Evangelist who tries to convert Bakha to Christianity but his wife shouts at Bakha for being an Indian and of low caste and Bakha realizes that changing religion won’t change his situation and runs away from the church. The novel also includes a fictional speech by Mahatma Gandhi in the town that Bakha listens curiously to. R.N. Basheer is a lawyer who criticizes Gandhi’s speech and calls him a hypocrite. However, Iqbal Sarshar, a poet opposes him as Bakha listens to their debate and takes some helpful lessons from it.

Summary of Untouchable:

The entire novel revolves around the single-day activities, experiences, and accidents of Bakha who belongs to the lowest caste of the Indian caste system. He lives in a mud house with a single room along with his younger brother Rakha, elder sister Sohini and father Lakha. His home is on the outskirts of the town of Bulashah near the police barracks. Lakha is a sweeper who cleans the latrines of other people of higher castes. He is the leader of all sweepers and assigns the duties of all sweepers in different areas of the town. It is early morning and Bakha is still sleeping on his bed. Lakha shouts at Bakha telling him to go and start his share of work but Rakha is feeling lazy and hesitant which angers Lakha. Bakha doesn’t like his work and he is more interested in the way English people live. He and his friends call English people ‘Tommies’. Lakha abuses him but Bakha continues to ignore him. But then he hears another angry voice of Hawaldar Charat Singh who wants him to clean his latrine so that he may start his day. Bakha becomes attentive and takes his sweeping broom and runs to do his work astutely. He doesn’t soil himself and shows proficiency in his work. Charat Singh goes to the latrine and after completing his daily routine, he appreciates Bakha and suggests that he will offer a hockey stick to him. Charat Singh is a famous hockey player and Bakha is also very good at hockey. This makes Bakha feel elated and he continues to perform his task of cleaning the latrine as many people visit the latrine to take their turn. After he is free of his duty, he returns home and finds Lakha still sleeping there. As he is thirsty, he looks for water but there is none. Sohini picks up the pot and goes to get some water from the well. No outcaste is allowed to take water from the well by himself. They must wait for someone from a high caste to get water from the well and pour it into their pitchers. As there are many other women of different lower castes waiting for someone from a higher caste to arrive and offer them water, Sohini stands in the queue behind Gulabo, a woman of the washermen caste. Gulabo doesn’t like it as she is comparatively of a superior caste to Sohini. She starts abusing her and calling names like a prostitute, bitch, etc. She is jealous of Sohini for her beauty. Sohini tries to dissuade the situation and smiles at her but Gulabo continues her attack and as she is about to slap Sohini, another woman Waziro who belongs to the weaver caste stops her and saves Sohini. Sohini is appalled, and she decides to stand alone, away from the queue.

Pundit Kali Nath arrives and decides to offer water to the waiting women. As he observes Sohini standing alone, he calls her first and fills her pitcher. He sees her with lust and asks her to visit the temple for a cleaning job later. Sohini takes water and returns home.

At home, Lakha is still sleeping. When Sohini returns, he scolds her for being late and asks her to gather her brothers and take them to their duties. He tells Bakha that he is not feeling well and Bakha should do his part of the work too. Bakha knows that his father is just feigning illness but he doesn’t argue. He drinks his tea and goes towards the temple where he is required to sweep. On his way, he meets Rakha, his younger brother along with Chotu and Ramcharan, who are his friends. Ramcharan is Gulabo’s son. He informs that his sister is going to marry. Rakha feels sad about it. Ramcharan’s sister used to be his childhood friend. He had intense feelings for her and they used to play games pretending to be husband and wife during their childhood. However, he realizes that being of a lower caste, he can never actually marry her. Bakha tells Rakha to join him in cleaning the latrines of the colonies but Rakha isn’t interested and goes home. Rakha decides to do the work alone. As he moves forward towards the town temple, he sees the sons of Burra Singh coming towards him. He greets them with respect and they start talking. They invite them for a hockey match that evening to which Rakha, Chotu, and Ramcharan agree. Rakha observes that they are going to school. He too wishes to go to school but he cannot attend as he is an outcast.

Bakha goes towards the temple. He still remembers Ramcharan’s sister. To get away from that emotion, he buys a cigarette and as he cannot ask for fire from any Hindu of a higher caste, he goes to a Muslim man and asks for burning coal to light his cigarette. As he passes by a shop, he decides to buy candy and starts munching on it. He is happy as he got this taste after so long. A high-caste man rushing towards him accidentally touches him and then starts shouting at him. Being an outcaste, it was Bakha’s duty to sing the chant of outcastes and avoid touching him but he was unattentive. Soon a big crowd gathers him and starts shouting at him. However, a horse buggy merchant arrives and disperses the crowd. The man is still angry and he slaps Rakha for touching him before he goes away. Bakha is sad and furious. He starts crying but couldn’t resist the slap nor could answer it. The buggy merchant tries to console him and he leaves for the temple. A shopkeeper reminds him of the chant of untouchables to sing while going to the temple and he starts singing. While moving towards the temple, he contemplates what just happened. He realizes that the work he does is so repugnant that nobody wants to be in touch with him.

He reaches the temple and finds peace there. He starts sweeping the lanes of the temple. As he sees some worshippers coming towards the temple, he starts chanting the song for outcastes to avoid any mishap again. He gets curious about the temple that he never saw from inside as being an outcast, he isn’t allowed inside the temple. He dares to approach the temple but just before entering the main door, he decides not to and returns to his work. He is listening to the hymns and prayers of other worshippers in the temple and it soothes him. Suddenly, he hears Pundit Kalinath shouting at Sohini for impuring him by touching. He reaches Sohini who informs him that Kalinath tried to sexually exploit her by touching and when she resisted, he started accusing her. Soon a big crowd gathers around Bakha and Sohini, accusing Sohini. Bakha decides to confront the crowd and informs them that Kalinath tried to molest Sohini. The crowd reduces their shouts but none of them dares to question Kalinath. Sohini realizes that situation may turn against Bakha and her and asks him to let it go and leave. He agrees and tells Sohini to go back home while he will go to gather food. Sweepers were supposed to clean latrines of society, colonies, and homes and in return would ask for food from people of high caste. As his mother wasn't alive, he, Sohini, and Rakha used to ask for prepared food. Sohini returns home and he goes from street to street to beg for some food so that his family can eat. But today is a hard day, no one offers him food. As he gets tired, he sits under a tree in front of a house. A Sadhu appears and asks for food as alms and a lady comes out of the house to offer food to Sadhu. As she sees Bakha sitting in front of her door, she shouts at him and he moves away. Another woman comes out from the neighborhood and offers some food to Sadhu and gives a chapati to Bakha with the same benevolence. However, the first woman gives Saadhu some food but asks Bakha to clean the gutter of her house before she gives him some food. Bbbbaligently cleans the gutter but as he looks for the food, the woman throws a chapati in front of him as if he is a dog. This disgusts him. He picks up the bread, throws away his sweeping broom, and runs towards his home.

At home, Lakha is alone as Rakha has gone to the barracks to beg for food. As Bakha reaches home, Lakha gets angry as he brings just two pieces of bread. Bakha says that he doesn’t know many people to ask for food. Lakha says that he must know people as it is the only way for him to get food in the future. He realizes that Bakha is distraught. He asks what happened to him. Lakha informs him about the accident and the slap he got and how Pundit Kalinath treated Sohini and him. Lakha tries to console him and says that high-caste people are superior to them and they should respect them. He then says that not all high-caste people are bad. Then he tells a true story of Bakha’s childhood when he was very little and got ill. When Lakha went to the doctor, who belongs to a high caste, he had to wait outside to get some prescriptions. But before he could meet the doctor, he got information that Bakha is about to die. So he forcefully entered the doctor’s clinic where many high-caste patients were sitting and they got appalled at seeing him. But he begged the doctor to help him save his child. The other people threw him out. Frustrated, when he reached home, he found Bakha barely alive as he was having difficulties in breathing. Suddenly, he heard a knock on the door. The doctor came to his home breaking all barriers of caste to protect Bakha and saved his life with proper medicines. Listening to this, Bakha feels relieved and happy. Soon Rakha returns with more food. As Bakha sits to eat some, he realizes that the food Rakha brought is taken from the remains of other people’s plates. This again repels him and he decides to go away making an excuse to attend Ramcharan’s sister’s wedding.

He visits Ramcharan’s house but doesn’t dare to enter alone as he fears Gulabo who is known for her hatred towards lower caste people. Chotu joins him and together they enter Ramcharan’s house. Ramcharan sees them and greets them and comes towards them. He opens a handkerchief full of sugarplums and asks Bakha and Chotu to eat. Bakha refuses and tells him to throw some sugarplums to him that he will pick. This dismays Ramcharan but Chotu realizes that Bakha has gone through some terrible experience. He asks what happened and Bakha fails to control and tells them about the slap he got and how Kalinath treated Sohini. Chotu gets hyper and suggests a way to take revenge on Kalinath which Bakha ignores. Then Chotu reminds him of the hockey match with Burra Babu’s kids. Ramcharan says that they should go home if they have to play hockey in the evening. Chotu goes home and Bakha goes to meet Charan Singh to take a new hockey stick.

At Charan Singh’s home, he finds no one outside and decides to wait for him. Charan Singh comes and enters his home without noticing Bakha. Later on, Bakha decides to call for him. Charan Singh happily greets him and takes him to his house. He offers him some tea despite being a man of high caste. Bakha reminds him and Charan Singh happily offers him a hockey stick. Charan Singh says that Bakha is a good player but he should devote more time to practicing. Bakha is happy after getting such a generous response from Charan Singh, a man of high caste. His new hockey stick fills him with enthusiasm.

On the ground, Barru babu’s younger son brings all the hockey gear. Bakha, being a member of the lowest caste, cannot play with boys of the high caste. Chotu says that he is a bearer of English Sahib to mask his real identity and thus Bakha gets a chance to play. Bakha proves to be a brilliant player and soon scores a goal against the team of Burra Babu’s son. Their goalkeeper gets angry and hits Bakha’s leg. This creates a ruckus and Chotu asks his teammates to attack the other team. Ramcharan picks a stone and throws which hits Burra babu’s younger son and he falls unconscious. Bakha sees him bleeding on the head and swiftly picks him up to take him to his home. As Burra Babu’s wife sees her son bleeding and in hands of an outcaste, she starts shouting and accusing Bakha of murdering her son. Bakha tries to say that Ramcharan hit him and it is not his fault but she doesn’t listen and curses him. Bakha runs away to his home. He hides his hockey stick and enters the home. Lakha is angry at him for remaining away for so long while they had to work. He shouts at him and tells him to o away and never return. Bakha is exasperated. He decides to leave and runs outside.

He reaches afar and sits down under a peepal tree near a church. Colonel Hutchinson sees him and goes to him. He touches his soldier and asks why he is so distraught? Bakha gets emotional and tells him all that happened to him during the day. Hutchinson says that Jesus died for the sins of the Brahmins and Bhangis. He encourages him to accept Christianity and offers him food and cloth if he visits the church with him. Bakha agrees and Hutchinson takes him inside the church where his wife is waiting for him. As she sees him with a black Indian of low caste, she shouts at him and abuses Bakha. Bakha realizes that changing religion is no solution and runs away from there.

He reaches a place where a large crowd has gathered to listen to a speech by Mahatma Gandhi. He decides to listen to the speech. Mahatma Gandhi arrives and says that caste discrimination is the biggest curse on Indians and requests people to discriminate against people for their caste. He says that lower caste people should attain equal opportunities, and proper education, they should be allowed in temples, and should attain basic rights of humanity. Bakha is impressed by Mahatma Gandhi. The speech ends and people start to move away. Soon he hears a voice criticizing Mahatma Gandhi for being a hypocrite. He comes to know that the man is a lawyer named R. N. Basheer. Another man, who is a poet named Iqbal Shahar opposes him and says that though Mahatma Gandhi did commit some mistakes overall, he is great and honest. He says that soon caste system will go away as new technology is coming up which will allow people to clean their latrines by themselves through flushes without getting their hands dirty. The latrines would be clean without humans and the cleaning profession would completely vanish resulting in the eradication of the untouchables. Bashir cannot respond to the claims of Iqbal and they leave.

Bakha finds it interesting as he feels that his work makes people disgust him. He is happy. He is cleansed of all the bad things that happened on that day. Bakha then decides to follow the instructions given by Mahatma Gandhi. He understands that having a flush system would decrease the problems faced by untouchables and heads back home to say all these things to his father.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected to the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Venice Preserved, Or A Plot Discovered by Thomas Otway | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d was one of the most successful Restoration period tragedy play that was written by Thomas Otway and was first performed in 1682. It is a political drama that gained momentum in the background of the Rye House Plot which was a plan to assassinate King Charles II of England and his brother (and heir to the throne) James, Duke of York. People of the Restoration era also had strong memories of the Poppish plot and hence general public was enthusiastic about discovering plots against the state. Thomas Otway depicted a lucid conspiracy of rebels to overthrow the state and how that plot was foiled.

Venice Preserv’d have many similarities with William Shakespeare’s Othello which was inspired by Cinthio’s Hecatommithi. Shakespeare’s Desdemona marries a moor Othello against her senator father’s wishes and Otway’s Belvidera marries Jaffeir against her father’s wishes. Othello kills Desdemona and himself, and Jaffeir kills Belvidera and commits suicide. However, unlike Shakespeare’s Othello, Otway’s Jaffeir fails to gain the sympathies of the audience. Despite his tragic end, he fails to become the tragic hero Othello is.

In fact, there’s hardly any hero in Otway’s Venice Preserv’d. The rebellions who conspire against the senate are as greedy, power-hungry, tyrannical, immoral, and corrupt as the senators are. There’s no better side, and thus, Otway presented this drama as a She-tragedy, the tragic lead is Belvidera who gains all sympathy.

Characters of Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d

Priuli is a senator of Venice who is comparatively honest and less corrupt than others. He has a daughter whom he loves very much, but not more than himself. Priuli can be compared to Shakespeare’s Barbantino from Othello. However, unlike Barbantino, he doesn’t conspire against Jaffeir to get his daughter back, he simply disowns his daughter when she marries a man without her father’s permission. Belvidera is Priuli’s daughter, a beautiful voluptuous girl who falls in love with Jaffier and marries him despite her father’s resistance to the marriage. She is a benevolent, affectionate, constant, and pure girl who is not gullible. She is intelligent and can be manipulative, but she is completely loyal to Jaffeir. Belvidera can be compared to Shakespeare’s Desdemona but unlike Desdemona, she is not a passive tragic heroine. Belvidera is much more prominent than Desdemona. She recognizes the corruption of the senate but when she comes to know that the conspirators are no better, maybe more corrupt and immoral than the senate, she convinces Jaffeir not to condone the plan of the conspirators, but to instead turn them into the senate. Later on, she manipulates her father, who has already disowned her, to pardon Jaffeir’s friend who conspired to kill Priuli by reminding him of her mother. Though the pardon comes a bit late.

Jaffeir is the husband of Belvidera who can be compared to Shakespeare’s Othello. He is expected to fulfill the roles of husband, friend, and rebel conspirator. However, he remains confused and cannot figure out the right path for him. He lacks any moral integrity. He also lacks appreciation for Belvidera’s love considering she gave up her father and privileges only to be with him. In addition, he lacks patience. Othello fell prey to the conspiracies of Iago who filled Othello’s heart with suspicion against Desdemona. However, Jaffeir knows that Belvidera is always loyal to him, yet he decides to sacrifice her and threatens to kill her if she fails to get a pardon for his friend.

Pierre is a friend of Jaffeir. He can be compared to Shakespeare’s Iago. He is a soldier of Venice who conspires against the senate and plans to murder Priuli. However, unlike Iago, who had no reason to act villainous, Pierre has a proper reason. He is the lover of Aquilina, a high-class courtesan whom a corrupt senator Antonio exploits and uses for his lust. When Pierre comes to know about it, he complains against the senator to the senate of Venice and asks for justice. However, the senate ignores the charges and claims that Antonio's behavior was a privilege entitled to the senators. This angers Pierre. As Priuli is a senator, he decides to murder him and brings Jaffeir into the conspiracy by exploiting his hatred against Priuli. Antonio is a corrupt senator who is lewd, immoral, and lecherous. He exploits Aquilina and often treats women with disdain. He addresses Aquilina as his “little Nacky” which indicates a female genital organ. Renault is the bloodthirsty head of conspirators. While he exploits the anger and frustration of Pierre and Jaffeir for his purpose of attacking the senate and gaining power, he is as corrupt and tyrannical as Antonio. He forces Jaffeir to keep his wife, Belvidera in his custody as a guarantee of his allegiance, and then he tries to rape her.

Venice Preserv’d as a She-Tragedy

Overall, Otway shows that none of the men treat women as they should. Priuli disowns his beloved daughter for she disobeyed him and married a man she loved. To get his revenge against Priuli to disown Belvidera and hence disallow Jaffeir his share of Priuli’s wealth as his son-in-law, he decides to support the conspirators. When he is asked to keep Belvidera in Renault’s custody, he agrees to that and effectively transfers his authority over Belvidera to Renault. The same happens in Shakespeare’s Othello where Othello leaves Desdemona in the care of Iago. Jaffeir later threatens to murder his wife, the girl who left her father and privileges to be with him.

Pierre loves Aquilina, but he neither trusts her nor respects her. Pierre arranges meetings of rebels at Aquillina’s house but she is not allowed to attend any of those meetings or listen to anything related to their plan. Pierre never discloses his conspiracy to her as if she is untrustworthy. Aquilina is comparable to Shakespeare’s Emilia, the wife of Iago in Othello.

Instead of vouching for his friend Jaffeir’s loyalty, Pierre persuades him to keep his wife Belvidera in the custody of Renault. Renault, who becomes the custodian of Belvidera, tries to exploit and rape her. The whole drama is based on the depiction of women as an object of lust and control and Otay exploits the victimhood of women for the success of the play. Unlike Venice Preserv’d, Shakespeare’s Othello doesn’t depend on the pathos brought about by the unjustified treatment of women. Though, the murder of Desdemona and the death of Belvidera both bring about the same degree of lust. Belvidera reminds Jaffeir of Lucrece after she saves herself against Renault’s onslaught and reaches him. Lucrece committed suicide and to challenge the standard that requires suicide of (female) rape victims, which seems a tacit admission of their guilt, she demands Jaffeir take revenge. Her disheveled and unnerved state eroticizes her suffering which is the main ingredient of a She-Tragedy. The rape attempt of Belvidera is depicted in such a sexually explicit manner that brings forth her sexuality. In the case of Othello, Desdemona acts as a passive victim. She is sleeping when Othello kills her and her murder is also depicted as erotic as it could be. Othello stands over his inert and sleeping wife and states: "I will kill thee and love thee after." The situation is depicted as overtly necrophilic, suggesting that Desdemona will reach the utmost desirable state after her murder, the state where she will be silent, chaste, and obedient.

Summary of Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d

Jaffeir is a poor Venetian soldier who falls in love with Belvidera, the daughter of a highly prestigious and rich senator of Venice. Belvidera also loves him but Priuli, her father is against this relationship. Nonetheless, she elopes with Jaffeir and marries him, hoping that her father, who loves her dearly, will accept her marriage. Priuli couldn’t bear this and he publicly denounces and disowns Belvidera, cutting off her inheritance. This angers Jaffeir as he hoped to get rid of his penury after marrying Belvidera, the rich girl. When Jaffeir’s friend Pierre comes to know about this, he decides to infuriate Jaffeir more against Priuli for his own reason of revenge against the senate. A corrupt senator Antonio has been sexually exploiting and using Aquilina, Pierre’s beloved. Pierre complained against him in the senate but didn’t get justice. Thus, he made contact with Renault, a power-hungry, bloodthirsty conspirator who plans to overturn the government by attacking the senators. The most strong, most reliable, and most trustworthy senator is Priuli and if he is killed, Renault hopes that the general public will side with the rebels for the uprising. Pierre takes Jaffeir to meet Renault who manipulates him into murdering Priuli. Jaffeir has his own motive if Priuli is murdered, he is the legal husband of her only daughter, and will get all his wealth in inheritance. However, Renault cannot trust Jaffeir as he is the son-in-law of Priuli. Thus, Jaffeir agrees to keep Belvidera in the custody of Renault as a hostage until Priuli is murdered. Belvidera is unaware of the plot but Jaffeir transfers her to Renault’s place. They plan to murder Priuli the very next morning. When Renault sees Belvidera sleeping at his place, lust engulfs him and he attempts to rape her. Belvidera resists and runs away in a disheveled distraught situation. She reaches home and informs Jaffeir. Jaffeir tells her about the conspiracy. She asks him how could he support such wretched people who tried to rape his wife. She then suggests Jaffeir turncoat and inform the senate about the conspiracy to which he agrees. But he is worried about his friend Pierre. Belvidera then plans that Jaffeir will reveal the names of conspirators and then will claim their lives as his reward and thus, he will get a right to pardon Pierre and save his life. Jaffeir agrees and reveals the conspiracy to the senate. However, the senate doesn’t offer him the reward he sought and condemns all conspirators to death. Jaffier is distraught. He feels guilty of disloyalty towards his friend Pierre. He goes to Belvidera and curses her for making him the cause of Pierre’s death sentence. He threatens her that if she fails to get a pardon for Pierre, he will murder her. Belvidera is distraught. She just faced a rape attempt on her and now, the man for whom she left her father and all privileges is threatening to murder her. She goes to her father who has already disowned her. Priuli discards her again and rejects her plea to help her by getting a pardon for Pierre who conspired to murder him. However, Belvidera insists and reminds Priuli of her mother to whom he promised to protect Belvidera in all situations. Priuli submits and agrees to pardon Pierre. Belvidera runs to her home to inform Jaffeir but finds that Jaffeir has gone to imprisonment to meet Pierre. She follows him to jail.

Meanwhile, Javier meets Pierre who is about to be hanged. Pierre is crestfallen as he failed in taking his revenge. Furthermore, he is about to be hanged, and he will die a death of ignominy unlike a brave soldier in the battleground. He says that he has forgiven Jaffeir but demands him a favor and asks Jaffeir to murder him with his own sword before he is hanged. Jaffeir rushes towards him and stabs him with his dagger, killing him. Later on, Jaffeir feels such intense remorse for killing his friend that he commits suicide by running the same dagger on his throat. At the same time, Belvidera reaches the gallows and before she could inform that she has won the pardon for Pierre, sees the death of Pierre and Jaffeir both. This breaks her completely and she goes insane and dies.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Mourning Becomes Electra by Eugene O’Neill | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mourning Becomes Electra was another drama written by Eugene O’Neill in which he imitated Greek tragedies in modern American settings. After Desire Under Elms (1924), he wrote Lazarus Laughed which was again based on Greek tragedies, and then in 1931, Mourning Becomes Electra was performed. As the title suggests, this play is based on the Ancient Greek Drama Oresteia by Aeschylus. The whole play is divided into three sections, Homecoming, The Hunted, and The Haunting. Homecoming mirrors Aeschylus’s Agamemnon while The Hunted depicts the story of The Libation Bearers. The Eumenides is described in the third section The Hunted. The title of the play suggests that mourning is natural for Electra as if it is her fate that she cannot avoid.

Mourning Becomes Electra is a complex tragic play that not only depicts Greek mythology as wholly based on fate, but Eugene O’Neill also included psychological aspects of the characters from a Freudian perspective. One can find traces of Sigmund Freud’s idea of the Electra complex and Oedipus complex within the play.

Characters of Mourning Becomes Electra:

Brigadier General Ezra Mannon is the son of Abe Mannon and the husband of Christine. He is a war veteran who returns to his family. He deeply loves his daughter Lavinia but has a complex relationship with his son Orin Mannon who hates him. Ezra Mannon is a handsome man liked by all the town’s people. He is good for all except that he doesn’t like Captain Adam Brant. He comes to know that his wife Christine is in an extramarital affair with Adam but that is not the cause of his hatred of Ezra against Adam. Adam is the son of his estranged brother David Mannon who fell in love with a french nurse Marie Brantome who came to their house for taking care of Abe Mannon during his illness. But when she got pregnant, David failed to convince his father to accept Marie as his daughter-in-law. Abe Mannon expelled David from the family and town and he became a drunkard and died in the violence. Marie asked for help from Ezra but he also refused to help her. Adam Brant seeks revenge against Ezra and he knows it. Lavinia is deeply connected with her father. She is a thin, weak, yet beautiful girl whom her neighbor Peter Niles loves and wishes to marry. Hazel Niles is the sister of Peter who loves Orin and wishes to marry him. Orin has just returned from war and he is suffering a deep impact of violence. He has an unhealthy fixation on his mother and when she commits suicide, he blames himself for her death. Later on, her sister’s sexual escapades further deteriorate his mental health and lead to his fall. Seth Beckwith is a gardener working at Ezra’s mansion. He is friendly to the Mannon family. He is loyal to Lavinia and tries to help her at all times.

Summary of Mourning Becomes Electra:

The play begins as the Civil War is at its final stage. Brigadier General Ezra Mannon and his son Orin Mannon, who fought in the Union army are expected to return soon. Lavinia is talking to Seth Beckwith who informs her about the many visits of Adam Brant at Ezra Mansion behind her back. Lavinia believed that Adam is trying to court her but now she realizes that he is having an affair with her mother. Lavinia is a beautiful but cold girl who is not very much liked by her mother. Seth informs her that Adam, who is a clipper ship Captain, is the nephew of her father Ezra Mannon. He tells her the story of David Mannon and how he was ostracized by her grandfather. Lavinia has an inkling that Adam Brant is trying to exact revenge against her family.

The next time when Adam visits Ezra’s mansion, Lavinia confronts him and blames him for his evil intentions. Adam angrily accepts that he is seeking revenge and no matter how he will get his revenge. Lavinia discusses this with her mother Christine who promises her to remain away from Adam. However, Christine has no love for Lavinia or Ezra and when Adam meets her again, she suggests he poison Ezra as he is about to return. She informs him that Ezra is suffering from heart disease for which he regularly takes medicine and they can easily change that medicine with some poison that will kill him.

Ezra returns a week later and when Lavinia sees him, she feels elated as she is intensely and passionately attached to her father. Ezra has heard of Adam visiting his house at his back from the townspeople. When he meets Christine, he tells him that he wishes to mend their relationship and have a new beginning. Christine pretends to be interested and Ezra takes her to his room for making love. At night, Ezra hears a sound that wakes him up. He sees that Christine is trying to go out of his room. He blames her for trying to get rid of him and they start quarreling. Christine shamelessly accepts that she is in love with Adam and that triggers heartache in Ezra. As he seeks his medicine, Christine changes it with poison and runs away. As soon as Ezr takes the medicine, he realizes his death. He calls for help and when Lavinia rushes into his room, he manages to say that the medicine has been changed with poison and Christine is responsible before dying. Lavinia is devastated by her father’s death. When she inspects the box of medicine, she finds the poison and is convinced of her mother’s crime.

After two days, Orin returns with his neighbor and friend Peter Niles from the war. He has heard of his father’s death but he is not that sad as he was never close to his father. Rather, he is more enthusiastic and energized. Lavinia tries to inform him about the evil-doing of their mother Christine and warns him not to be manipulated by her but Orin fails to understand. When he meets Christine, she hugs him warmly and Orin feels exuberated. Lavinia realizes that Christine will easily manipulate him. Orins asks Christine about Adam and she lies that he is courting Lavinia and removes any doubt. Orin says that now that his father is no more, he wishes to take Christine on a long sea journey as he dreamed of sailing to the South Sea Islands with her.

As Lavinia gets a chance to talk to Orin in solitude, she informs him about Adam and Christine’s affair and how they planned and killed their father. Orin gets furious but he doesn’t believe his sister as he has more trust and love for his mother. Yet, he agrees to keep an eye on Christine if she tries to meet Adam to examine the validity of Lavinia’s blame.

After Ezra’s funeral, Christine visits the shore at night to meet Adam at his ship and informs him that Lavinia knows how they murdered Ezra and tells him to take her away from the town. Adam agrees and says that he will prepare for a long sail to China where he will take her. Christine returns home. However, she was being watched by Orin and Lavinia. Now Orin is convinced of Lavinia’s charges and as he sees Christine going away, he shoots at Adam and kills him. Lavinia and Orin make the murder look like a case of robbery.

At home, Christine is worried about Adam as she also fears her own crime to be revealed. She calls Hazel to talk to her. As Orin and Lavinia return from the shore, they inform Christine that some robbers have robbed and murdered Adam. This breaks Christine’s heart. As she sees Lavinia and Orin together, she realizes that Lavinia has told him about their father and she gets feverish. Orin tries to calm her down and tells her that now she can happily live with him openly suggesting his sexual interest in her. However, Christine decides to retire to her room and she shoots herself.

Lavinia believes that justice has been achieved while Orin is sad about Christine’s demise and he blames himself for her death. To soothe him, Lavinia says that they must go to the South Sea Islands to have some time to get over the accidents. Orin agrees and he and Lavinia go on a long voyage.

After a year, Peter and Hazel are eagerly waiting for the return of Orin and Lavinia. Hazel dream of marrying Orin as he returns while Peter is excited for Lavinia. When they return, Peter notices that Lavinia is changed, unlike the thin, weak girl she was in past, now she is voluptuous, excited, and happy about herself. Peter likes her more than ever. Orin on the other hand appears dull and confused. Peter appreciates the changes in Lavinia and she suggests that now that she has returned, they should marry soon. Orin interrupts and reminds her of how much she enjoyed her Journey to the South Sea Islands and how she mingled with the native people in China. Lavinia gets irritated by Orin at this and tells him to leave the past behind.

A month passes but Orin remains the same bitter and angry at himself and Lavinia. He is guilt-ridden. When Lavinia tries to talk to him, he says that he has written a detailed manuscript about the crimes of Mannon and she holds a lengthy space in that manuscript. Lavinia gets angry as she never did any crime and Orin accuses her of lurid behavior with a native named Avahanni whom she met during the journey. Lavinia admits that lust took her over and she submitted to Avahanni, Orin attacks and abuses her.

Peter is concerned about Lavinia while Hazel worries for Orin. She complains to Peter that Lavinia is controlling Orin too much but Peter dismisses her concern. One day, Orin meets Hazel and hands her over the manuscript that he wrote. He tells her that Lavinia should not marry Peter and if Peter decides to marry her, Hazel must make Peter read that manuscript before marrying her. While Hazel is confused, Lavinia sees notices them and sees Orin giving the manuscript to Hazel. She doesn’t know what the manuscript contains. She goes to Orin and Hazel and says that she will do anything if Orin gives that manuscript to her. Orin takes the manuscript back from Hazel and tells her that there’s nothing left between them and tells her to go away. Hazel is confused, angry, and disturbed but she decides to leave.

Orin faces Lavinia and says that he cannot let her marry Peter and she must know what he wants. He openly demands an incestuous relationship with Lavinia that he couldn’t have with Christine as she died. Lavinia is appalled. She cries and shouts at Orin and says that it is not possible to which Orin says that it is the only way they can live together. Lavinia refuses to submit and says that she wishes he dies. This strikes Orin as he realizes what he is trying to do. He goes away to his room and shoots himself.

After his funeral, Lavinia closes herself in her mansion. After a week she returns to her past self, She is now dull, weak, and thin. Hazel sees her and confronts her. Hazel doesn’t know what happened between her and Orin but she blames Lavinia for his demise and tells her to remain away from Peter as she is affecting him too. Soon Peter notices Lavinia and comes to greet her. Lavinia clings to Peter and tells her to marry her as soon as possible. Peter is confused about her hurried behavior. As he hesitates, Lavinia tries to convince him and while doing so, accidentally calls him ‘Avahanni.’ peter questions her about the native man and she realizes that marriage and happiness are not her fate. Her fate is to remain alone and survive the curse on the Mannons. She orders Peter to go away and tells Seth to close the gates of Mannon Mansion. She goes inside the house and shuts the door as the play ends.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Anandmath, Or The Abbey of Bliss by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee was one of the most prominent novelists, essayists, poets, and journalists who wrote more than 17 novels and many essays. Initially, he wrote romantic novels infused with strong feelings of nationalism, and gradually, he started writing political novels strengthening the calls for Indian freedom struggle against the foreign rule. In 1882, he published his most popular novel Anandmath in Bengali which was soon translated into English as The Abbey of Bliss. The first translation was by Naresh Chandra Sengupta in 1906. In 1909, another translation by Shri Aurobindo Ghosh and Barindrakumar Ghosh appeared, and in 1941, Basanta Koomar Roy published his translation of Anandmath as Dawn Over India. The recent translation of Anandmath by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was published by Julius J. Lipner in 2005 and was titled Anandmath, Or The Sacred Brotherhood.

The novel is a historical fiction that fictionalizes the Sanyasi Rebellion of the late 18^th century (1770-1777) and mixes it with two love stories. Anandmath is considered one of the most important novels in the history of Indian literature as it certainly strengthen the Indian freedom struggle. The novel is also known for one of its poetic songs of it titled Vandemataram (Hail to Motherhood) which was later adopted as the national song of India by the Indian National Congress in October 1937. On January 24, 1950, the Constitution Assembly of India declared Vandemataram as the national song of the Free Indian Republic.

Characters: Mahendra is a wealthy landlord of the high class living in his village Padachihna with his wife Kalyani and daughter Sukumari. Mahendra and Kalyani deeply love each other but they face troubles as persistent famine forces them to see days of struggles. Unable to sustain in the village, the couple venture into the nearby city of Calcutta to find ways to earn a living. Mahatma Satya is a leader of Sanyasis struggling against the atrocious government headed by Muslim rulers (Mir Jafar) aided by the British East India Company that got the right to collect taxes. While the general populace of Bengal was suffering extreme hunger and poverty due to persistent famine, the rulers were competing to collect more taxes from those who could barely feed their family members. In a cruel move, Muhammad Reza Khan, the king’s revenue officer, thinking to show how important he was, at once increased taxes by 10 percent, and great was the lament in Bengal. This not affected general people, but also created troubles for sanyasis who were dependent on the alms offered by common people to them. They raised their voices against the cruel taxation system and hence came directly in conflict with the East India Company, which had the right to collect taxes through atrocious means. The drastic situations also raised rates of crimes and the number of dacoits, and it became difficult to distinguish between a sanyasi and a dacoit. Bhavan is a brave disciple of Mahatma Satya who leads the ascetics in his absence and dies while fighting against the British soldiers. Jiban and Shakti are the other loving couple in the novel. Jiban is a young man who marries a poor orphan girl Shakti as he loves her. However, considering the situation of society and the condition of people in general, he decides to leave his family and join the forces of Mahatma Satya for the independence of his nation. Shakti, being a woman is left with Jiban’s elder sister Nirmala or Nimmi. However, Shakti finds it difficult to stay away from Jiban and decides to join the Ascetic forces disguised as a male soldier. Later on, her disguise is turned out and Mahatma Satya decides to send her back. But, she with her bravery and strength, proves that though she is a woman, she is no less a soldier than any man and becomes an integral part of the ascetic army against the British forces.

Summary of Anandmath: The Abbe of Bliss Or Sacred Brotherhood

Anandmath is a romantic story of two loving couples who meet and struggle for a common goal as fate brings them on the same path. The novel is divided into four parts. The first part introduces Mahendra, who is the leader of his village. He finds it difficult to collect and pay taxes to the British tax collectors because at heart, he is a benevolent person who cares for his village members. Because of famine, all lands are dry and people are dying of hunger. In such a situation, he finds it difficult to sustain living in the village and decides to go to Calcutta with his wife Kalyani and daughter Sukumari to earn means of living. During their journey to Calcutta, they witness the extreme effects of famine. Hunger has turned some people to take the path of crime as they have become robbers trying to rob anything they can get from others. Situations have turned so drastic that some man-eating robbers just catch and eat any animal or human they see. The famine compelled the people of that area to feed on the flesh of other humans.

As they move forward, they are attacked by a gang of robbers and as they run for their life, Mahendra and Kalyani get separated. Sukumari is with her mother while Mahendra tries to look for them but fails. Meanwhile, Kalani keeps running with Sukumari in her arms and collapses near a river while man-eating dacoits are hunting for her. Suddenly an ascetic, Mahatma Satya comes to her rescue and saves her against the dacoits. He then takes her and her daughter to his Ashrama where there are many other ascetics and Sanatanas. Sanatana' are not ascetics or Sanyasis, but they are those ordinary men who have joined the groups of Sanyasi to fight against the atrocious tax-collecting regime of the Muslims and British rulers. One of them is Jiban, a bright, brave young man, and another one is Bhavan, who is the leader of Sanatanis.

Meanwhile, Mahendra also comes face to face with another band of Sanyasis and Mahendra takes the Sanyasis for robbers. He says, “But a bad job! Banditry no less!” However, Sanyasis try to convince him that they are not robbers, rather, they try to save people against such psychologically ill people who have turned inhuman and are robbing and eating other people. The Sanyasis then say that their aim is to fight against the cruel taxation regime that has forced humans to turn against other humans. Mahendra feels a strong emotion of humanism, nationalism, and a sense of duty in those ascetics and he thinks of joining them. The Sanyasis take him to the Ashrama. Kalyani is also in the same Ashram but Mahendra is unaware of her presence. The Sanyasis describe their goals and ideas to Mahendra in more elaborative terms and explains how India was before the British and Muslim invaders came, how India is while suffering the plundering of foreign invaders, and how India will be in future when their motherland will be freed of foreign invaders. Mahendra gets inspired and decides to join the forces of monks to achieve the common goal of freedom in the Motherland. Mahatma Satya says that if he has to join their forces, he must leave his family. Kalyani observes him from a distance while he isn’t aware of her presence and decides to not become an obstacle in his dream of fighting for and serving Mother India. She takes some poison and offers it to her daughter Sukumari to drink and then she drinks the poison herself, thereby relieving Mahendra of his worldly duties. At the same moment, British soldiers, who were trying to catch the rebels attack the ashram and arrest Mahendra and Satya while other ascetics try to run away and save themselves. In the conundrum, one of the ascetics sings a song informing others whereabouts of Sukumari and Kalyani to save them. When Jiban and Bhavan listen to his song, they run to save Kalyani and Sukumari. Jiban finds Sukumari who is taking her last breaths as she has taken poison. He gets a herbal antidote and saves her life. He then takes her to his sister Nimmi’s home to keep her in safety. Bhavan finds Kalyani and saves her too with the same herbal antidote. However, he is too impressed by her beauty and feels a strong force of affection towards her.

The second part describes the love story of another couple, Jiban and Shakti. Shakti was an orphan Brahmin girl whose mother died at an early age. Her father taught her mathematics, philosophy, and literature but he died too before she could stand on her feet. When Jiban meets this poor orphan girl, he falls in love with her and marries her. However, the situation of society forces him to think of joining the rebellion group of Sanyasis to fight against the atrocious government. However, he must be free of worldly relationships to join the Sanyasi forces. Thus, he decides to leave Shakti at his sister Nimmi’s home and goes away to the Sanyasi Ashrama and becomes a Sanatani. Shakti finds it difficult to live without Jiban and decides to disguise himself as a man and joins the ascetic rebels to live near Jiban. One day, her disguise is revealed and she gets caught. Mahatma Satya orders her to leave the Ashrama but she resists and claims that she is as brave and strong as any man in the Sanyasi forces. She then lifts the mighty bow of Mahatma Satya which only Satya, Bhavan, or Jiban could lift. This impresses Mahatma Satya who allows her to stay and fight against the British forces as a female fighter. Jiban, Bhavan, and Shakti decide to arrack the British forces rescue Mahatma Satya and while doing so, they rescue Mahendra too. As he comes back to the Ashrama, he meets Kalyani. When Bhavan sees the devotion of Kalyani towards Mahendra, he finds himself full of guilt. In the third part, the ascetic forces continue to fight against British forces, and to safeguard themselves against British attacks, they decide to make a small fort of bricks. In the fourth part, The British army in full force decides to attack the brick fort of Sanyasis and end the rebellion once and for all. The brick fort is on the other side of a river with a bridge in between. The shrewd British commander first orders his army to march towards the brick fort on the other side and as the British soldiers reached the bridge, he orders them to retreat and hide. The untrained and inexperienced Sanyasis feel elated as they see British soldiers retreating and running away. In their excitement, they come out and try to catch the British soldiers. As soon as a huge number of Sanyasi rebels get on the bridge to cross it, the British army throws fire canons on the bridge and thus killing a huge number of Sanyasis in one go. It creates havoc in the Sanyasi camp but some attentive Sanyasi soldiers including Bhavan, Jiban, and Mahendra capture some of the cannons and turn the fire back onto the East India Company lines. The East India Company forces are forced to fall back, the rebels winning their first battle. Bhavan while fighting bravery gets martyrdom. In the end, Mahatma Satya says that the fight for freedom will continue with new soldiers and faces and decides to follow his Guru to the Himalayas for penance. Shakti too suggests to Jiban that they should lead a life as saints and visit the Himalayas and he agrees. Mahendra and Kalyani decide to make a new home and give a proper education and life for their kid Sukumari and the novel ends.

Bankium Chandra Chatterjee was a known Hindu Vaishnavite Nationalist. He introduced certain elements in his fictional drama that appear inspired by Vaishnav stories. When Mahatma Satya explains the purpose of Ascetic rebels to Mahendra, he shows him three temples with three different idols of Mother India. The first one is of Goddess Parvati, Jagaddhatri, Satya says that this is what Mother India was, and the second one is Goddess Kali, Satya says that this is what Mother India has become, and we Sanyasis are her Ganas. The third idol is Goddess Durga in all her beauty and wealth. Mahatma Satya says that this is what Mother India would be in the future. Again, when Shakti is caught as a woman disguising as a man to be with ascetic rebels near her husband Jiban, she resists the decision of Satya to make her leave the Ashram and shows her strength by lifting up a mighty bow that only a few could use and reminds of Goddess Sita who could easily lift and use Pinaka, the bow of Shiva as a child. Seeing her strength, Satya allows her to stay in Ashrama and be a vital soldier in the fight against Muslim and British invaders. Mahatma Satya himself reminds us of Krishna, guiding the rebels fighting for the establishment of Moral Order (Dharma) against the immoral and inhuman tax regime led by Muslim and British forces.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Orphan, Or The Unhappy Marriage by Thomas Otway | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Thomas Otway was a playwright of the Restoration period who not only succeeded with his comedies of manners but also made a mark as a tragedy playwriter. The Shakespearean usage of blank verse for telling a tragedy was revived by John Dryden in his play All for Love in 1677. Thomas Otway mastered the blank verse in a better manner and produced The Orphan Or The Unhappy Marriage which was a family tragedy play, also known as a She-tragedy drama. The subtitle of The Orphan is The Unhappy Marriage. It was first performed in 1680. Otway proved his mastery over depicting pathos in his dramas and then he produced The History and Fall of Caius Marius in the same year in which he recreated the story of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet based on Plutarch’s Lives. In 1682, Thomas Otway produced Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d which was again a ‘she-tragedy’.

A she-tragedy, also known as pathetic tragedy is a tragedy play that was focused on the sufferings of a woman, sometimes innocent and virtuous but often a woman who had committed some sort of sexual sin.

Characters of The Orphan, Or The Unhappy Marriage

The titular character of the play is Monimia who is an orphan. She is raised by Acasto, who is a nobleman of high rank. Acasto takes care of Monimia like her own daughter Serina. Castalio and Polydore are the two sons of Acasto who are twins. Castalio was the first-born twin and thus, he believes and behaves like the elder brother. Castalio is very honest and morally strong. Polydore is the younger brother who often remains under the shadow of Castalio. Unlike Castalio, Polydore doesn’t care for morality that much and prefers to remain practical. Chamont is the brother of Monimia who is an honest and brave soldier. Being an orphan himself, he joined the army at an early age, and hence, his nature is a bit rough and unsophisticated. He dearly loves his sister. Serina falls in love with Chamont though Chamont remains indifferent.

Summary of The Orphan, Or The Unhappy Marriage

Acasto returns to his home after retiring from the court and his only mission is to keep his sons safe at home while half the Europe is engaged in wars that Acasto believes are purposeless. He encourages his sons to learn arts and politics and remain away from women. Castalio and Poldore are twins who are more like friends. They are almost similar in appearance but Castalio is a minute or two elder than Polydore. He is more serious, thinking, caring, and morally strong. On the other hand, Polydore is full of childlike excitement toward life. Their younger sister Serina is growing old and Acasto is trying to find a good suitor for her. In addition, Acasto is also worried about Monimia, an orphan whose responsibility he took with utmost care. Acasto has saved enough dowry for Serina and Monimia’s marriage as he treats Monimia as his own daughter.

Meanwhile, Castalio and Polydore are unoccupied and restless as their father doesn’t allow them to go abroad to explore. Both are young and full of heart and they find the most strong attraction in their own home in form of Monimia. Monimia, however, likes Castalio and has expressed her love for him. Castalio also loves Monimia but he knows that Polydore is also in love with her. Castalio is the elder brother and doesn’t wish to break the heart of his younger brother. Being morally stronger than Polydore, he always avoids expressing his feelings for Monimia in front of Polydore. On the other hand, Polydore is a bit shameless in this regard and openly expresses his desperation to win the love of Monimia his brother. For his scrupulousness, Castalio makes the mistake of repressing his love and claims that he has no desire to marry. He says that he would not object if Polydore presses his proposal to Monimia. While Polydore and Castalio were discussing all this, a servant overhears them and informs Monimia. Monimia is in true and deep love with Castalio and she feels heartbroken when she listens that Castalio has no desire to marry.

Chamont, the elder brother of Monimia returns from the war. He joined the army at an early age while Acasto took the responsibility of his younger sister Monimia. Now he is a reputed, honest, and brave soldier. He visits Acasto’s house to meet his sister. When Serina sees Chamont, she falls in love with him. However, Chamont is a bit rough and unsophisticated. He meets Monimia and talks about his dream in which he saw her surrendering to two lovers. He is worried about Monimia and asks her if anything wrong has been done to her. Monimia calms him down and assures him that Acasto’s family takes proper care of her. She shares her inner feelings for Castalio with her brother and says that she deeply loves Castalio and wishes to marry him. Chamont isn’t convinced though, so he warns Monimia of Castalio and tells her to treat him in cold to test his love. However, when Monimia and Castalio meet, Castalio removes all the doubts brewing in Monimia’s mind and promises to marry her at the appropriate time.

Meanwhile, Acasto suffers an attack during a feast and he feels as if he will die soon. He calls upon all his family members to his chamber. He announces that he has equally divided his estate and wealth between Castalio and Polydore and he has saved enough dowry for Serina and Monimia. He further says that his only worry is Serina and asks Chamont to accept her as his wife. Chamont cannot deny the wish of a dying man, and deep at heart, he is impressed by Serina’s beauty so he accepts. Soon Acasto recovers and his health improves. However, Castalio is extra-cautious. He asks Monimia to secretly marry him as he isn’t sure his father will accept their marriage after giving his sister’s hand to her brother. Monimia agrees and informs Chamont about it. Chamont isn’t happy about his sister getting married in secrecy, yet he offers his acceptance as it confirms a safer future for her sister. A priest visits and performs the marriage of Castalio and Monimia.

While sharing a few romantic moments with Monimia, Castalio tells her that he will visit her room at night and she should open the door. Monimia demures and says that it isn’t possible because her room is exactly next to the room of Acasto, and any noise will get him awake. To this, Castalio says that he will make three light knocks upon the door, and won’t speak a single word and thus, there will be no noise. Monimia agrees to this as at heart, she also wishes to be with her husband for the night.

Polydore is unaware of the marriage of Castalio and Monimia. As he enters the home, he eavesdrops on Monimia and Castalio and listens to Castalio’s plan of knocking on Monimia’s door three times at night. He is a bit bewildered as he is in love with Monimia and when he expressed his love for her to Castalio, his brother said that he is not interested in her. He feels a bit cheated and turns rebellious. He decides to visit Monimia’s room much before Castalio.

At night, Polydore goes and lightly knocks on Monimia’s door three times. As promised, Monimia opens the door. In the dark of the night, she fails to recognize that the person who entered isn’t her husband but his younger brother. Being twins, they were almost similar. Polydore makes proper use of the opportunity and shares the bed with Monimia. After a while, Castalio turns to Monimia’s door and lightly knocks three times. When Monimia listens to the sound, she gets confused, to which Polydore, pretending to be Castalio says that it must be Polydore who is trying to tease Monimia and drags her back in his arms.

In the morning, Polydore reveals that Monimia slept with him and Castalio and this creates havoc. Monimia gets frenzies and runs to seek Castalio. When she sees him, she tells him that they must get parted. She goes to her brother and complains about what happened. Chamont gets angry and visits Acasto in his room and informs him about the secret marriage of Castalio and Monimia and demands justice. Acasto rejects the secret marriage. However, the conundrum creates enough noise to let Polydore realize that Monimia and Castalio were already married before he robbed her virginity. He feels guilty for his action. When Castalio faces him, he instigates Castalio and challenges him to a duel. As Castalio isn’t ready to fight with his brother, he starts abusing him and when Castalio decides to raise his sword in rage, Polydore runs to his blade and commits suicide. Before dying, he informs Castalio about his sin but complains that it all happened because Castalio didn’t trust him enough and revealed his love for Monimia to him. He says that had Castalio trusted him and told him of the marriage, the tragedy would have been averted. Meanwhile, Monimia also falls to the ground and she reveals that she has taken a heavy dose of poison. As she also dies, Castalio feels all lost and cuts his throat with his own dagger.

Acasto, Chamont, and Serina witness all of this in shock as they are the only remains of a family that was full of love.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the History of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and regards.

Desire Under Elms by Eugene O’Neill | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Desire Under Elms was a 3 Act play by Eugene O’Neill that was first performed in 1924. The play is loosely based on the Greek myth of Hippolytus and Phaedra which was first depicted in the play Hippolytus by Euripides. Eugene O’Neill depicted a similar story in a rural New England setting, albeit there are some basic differences between the story of Hippolytus by Euripides and the story of Desire Under Elms by Eugene O’Neill.

Characters: Eben Cabot is a young man with a strong sinewy build. He is attractive looking with defensive and resentful eyes. He lives with his old father and two half-brothers from his father’s first wife. The farmland they live on belongs to his mother whom his father married for land. His mother died while working hard at the farm and Eben blames his father for her death. Simeon and Peter Cabot are elder than Eben. Simeon is 39 years old and Peter is 37 years old. None of them wishes to waste their life on the farmland and they dream of venturing out to California and trying their luck in gold mines. Ephraim Cabot is 75 years old man, father of Eben, Simeon, and Peter. He is strongly built though his eyesight is weak now as he is too old. His first wife died at an early age when Simeon and Peter were little. He married for the second time and worked the farm of his second wife and made it successful. His second wife also died early and he often complains of being lonesome and the fact that no one really knows him. While he remained dutiful to each of his sons, none of his sons is close to him. Simeon and Peter wish he dies so that they may get their share of the farm and go to California to find gold. Eben on the other hand resents his father and wrongly blames him for his mother’s death. Abbie Putnam is a vivacious buxom woman, 35 years old. She is attractive with a strong sex appeal that cannot be denied. She marries Ephraim Cabot and becomes his third wife for security, money, and land. However, Ephraim is too old for her and she sets her eyes on Eben. Eben believes that she married his father only to grab his mother’s land. He resents Abbie for this but gradually accepts her as his lover. Abbie is happy to get the security of home as Ephraim’s wife while her physical and emotional needs are fulfilled by Eben until he comes to think that she is tricking him for his land.

Summary of Desire Under Elms:

It is a 3 Act play divided into 12 scenes. Eugene O’Neill was known for his heart-shaking tragedies and this play is also a tragedy based on difficult themes of greed, vengeance, love, desire, adultery, and distrust. The play is set in a farmhouse in New England in the 1850s. The farmhouse has two grown u strong elm trees, one at each side of the gate. Eben Cabot is a young attractive thin man with strong muscles showing his strength. He rings a bell to call his elder brothers Simeon and Peter to have supper. As Simeon and Peter arrive, they discuss the gold mines of California. Simeon says that it is an appropriate time for them to go to California and venture their luck in finding gold. Peter mentions that their father Ephraim Cabot is too old. He went out of the house two months ago and hasn’t returned yet. Simeon says that they cannot leave the farm until their father returns. Eben is listening to them and he says that he wishes their father is already dead.

Simeon and Peter know that Eben resents their father but they chastise him for wishing for his death. Eben argues that their father was responsible for the untimely death of his mother who died at a young age. He even blames Simeon and Peter for not helping his mother at the time of her need. Later on, Eben leaves the house to visit a local prostitute. Simeon says that Eben is exactly like their father.

The next morning, Eben arrives with news that their father has married for the third time. Simeon and Peter are afraid that the new wife of Ephraim will claim her share in the farmland. Eben sees his opportunity and offers $300 each to Simeon and Peter if they agree to give their rights on the farmland in favor of Eben to which Simeon and Peter agree. Eben has a strong desire to hold the whole farmland alone as it belonged to his dead mother.

As soon as Ephraim Cabot returns to the farmhouse along with his voluptuous curvy wife Abbie Putnam, Simeon and Peter leave home to go to California for their new venture in gold mines. Before leaving, they get into an argument with their father and warn him that Eben is just like him and he will chew him and throw him away. Meanwhile, Abbie is too excited at seeing her husband’s land and it is pretty clear that she married only for the land. As she goes out to have a stroll on the farm, she encounters Eben working in the field. She sees him with great interest and finds herself strongly attracted to him. Eben also notices her grown-up voluptuous body and finds himself attracted to her. Yet, when Abbie starts behaving seductively, he rejects her advances and reprimands her. He says that his father brought her like a prostitute and she has no right on the land as it belongs to him alone. Abbie too has a strong interest in the land but now, her whole attention is only on Eben who has aroused a strong desire in her.

Abbie continues to seduce Eben but he is strong-willed to reject her advances again and again. Abbie is concerned that Ephraim is thinking of offering the whole farm to Eben so she devises a plan and complains to Ephraim that Eben has been flirting with her. This angers Ephraim and he threatens to kill Eben or drive him away from the farm. Abbie realizes that she wants nothing of it as she still hopes to seduce Eben. She calms Ephraim down and tells him that she wishes to become the mother of his child. Ephraim is delighted to listen to this and he promises to fill her womb with a child soon. However, Abbie isn’t satisfied with Ephraim’s advances. Soon she decides to go to Eben’s cabin and kisses him forcibly. Eben tries to resist but fails to control her onslaught. She then invites him to the parlor down the hall which is a long unused room as it is believed to be haunted by Eben’s dead mother. This offers a different insight into Eben. He thinks that his mother would approve of his sexual relationship with his father’s newlywed wife as revenge against Ephraim. Thus, Abbie and Eben begin an incestuous relationship.

Soon Abbie becomes pregnant and then after nine months, she gives birth to a child. Old Cabot believes that the newly born baby is his child and throws a party to celebrate. All the neighborhood knows about the incestuous relationship between Abbie and Eben and they laugh at the back of Old Cabot but he ignores them. After the party, Ephraim goes to Eben’s room and says that the farm will go to Abbie and his newly born child. This angers Eben and they start fighting. When Abbie hears the noise, she goes up and tries to separate the two. Old Cabot soon retires to his room. When Abbie tries to talk to Eben, he shouts at her and blames her for using him to get pregnant so she could claim the child was Cabot’s and take the farm. Now when Old Cabot has announced that the farm will go to Abbie and her child, Eben finds no reason to stay at the farm and decides to go to California to work with his elder brothers. Abbie tries to reason with him and convinces him that she will find a way to prove his doubts wrong. Eben rejects listening to her and says that he wished the child had never been born. Abbie realizes that her own child is the wall between her and Eben.

The next morning, when Eben is preparing to leave for California, Abbie decides to act and she smothers her own child to death while standing on the balcony. She then rushes down to stop Eben from going away as she informs him that she has killed the child. While Abbie is feverish and proud as she did the ultimate sacrifice to save her love, her desire, Eben is horrified by Abbie’s act. He says that he is going to inform the Sherrif of the murder of the child. Abbie tells him that she doesn’t care for anything now as she did what was necessary to win back his love. Eben goes out to inform the Sherrif.

Meanwhile, hearing the noise, Ephraim gets up and comes out. He asks Abbie if the child is still sleeping to which she answers that the child is dead. Ephraim is shocked and sad. He goes to the child to check and finds him dead. He takes the child in his arms and starts crying. Abbie sees him and cruelly shatters his heart more by revealing that he is not the father of that dead child as the child was Eben’s son. Ephraim feels as if the ground is shattering under his feet. He says that he is going to inform the sheriff to which Abbie says that he doesn’t need to do that as Eben himself has gone to call the sheriff.

Eben returns and informs that the Sheriff is coming soon. He faces Abbie and tells her that no matter what happened but he loves her more than anything in the world and says that he will equally share the blame for the murder of the child. Abbie hugs Eben and they both disgust Old Cabot. Old Cabot is too sad and he says that he will burn the farm and go to California with his saved money. Eben informs him that he used his saved money to buy Simeon and Peter’s land on the farm. Old Cabot realizes that he now has no money but only the farm. He accepts his fate to live lonely on the farm as the Sherrif arrives, arrests Eben and Abbie, and takes them away.

So, this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Rajmohan’s Wife by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Rajmoan’s Wife was the first novella written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee that was published in 1864. It was the first Indian English novella that was edited by Ishwar Chandra Gupta and published in a periodical named Indian Field. Bankim Chandra was born on 27 June 1838 and he died on 8^th April 1894. He got his postgraduate degree in Law from the University of Calcutta in the year in 1869. He joined British Indian Government as a Deputy Magistrate in 1858 and retired as a Deputy Collector in 1891. Despite his job, he was a staunch Hindu nationalist who through his literary works, continued to strengthen the Indian struggle for independence against the foreign rule. Rajmohan’s Wife was a romantic, suspenseful thriller that was followed by Durgeshnandini, his first Bengali novel published in 1865. Rajsimha was his first historical fiction novel that was published in 1881 and was later translated into Hindi by Bhartendu Harishchandra. In 1882, Chaterjee’s Anandmath was published which was a fictional novel loosely based on the historical Sanyasi Revolt of India against the British East India Company in which he depicted untrained Sanyasi soldiers fighting and defeating the East India Company. Anandmath became hugely popular and the poetic song ‘Vandemataram’ written in highly Sanskritised Bengali touched the nerves of the Indian masses. Later on, this song was adopted as the National Song in 1937.

Characters of Rajmohan’s Wife :

Matangini is the protagonist of the story. She is the eponymous wife of Rajmohan. She belonged to a poor family and her father married her to Rajmohan in haste. She is 18 years old young woman with a strong will and a confident attitude. Rajmohan is the abusive husband of Matangini. He is involved in some nefarious activities as he wants to make some fast money. He is an unscrupulous, cruel, and corrupt man filled with false pride. Matangini asks for a job for her husband but when Rajmohan is offered the job, he gets furious and rejects it. Though he accepts the job later with a nefarious plan. Hemangini is the younger sister of Matangini. She is married to Madhav. Madhav’s father Ramkanhai wished him to marry the poor girl Hemangini who is a good-natured submissive girl who dares not talk to her own sister in front of her husband. Madhav is an educated wise man full of patience. He is a just man. When he visits to see and marry Hemangini as his father wishes, Matangini sees him and finds herself in love with him. However, he is going to be her brother-in-law. Ramkanhai’s father had distributed his estate equally to his three sons. The eldest son was Ramakanta whose son is Mathur. Ramakanta manages his part of the estate well and taught Mathur how to manage land and servants. However, Mathur is not well-educated. Ramkanhai failed to manage his part of the estate and wasted most of his money on gambling and alcohol. However, he made sure that his son Madhav attains the best education and he arranged the marriage of Madhav to Hemangini, believing that the couple will remain happy throughout their life. Ramakanta and Ramkanhai’s third brother Ramgopal remained childless. Before he died, he transferred his share of the estate to Madhav as he considered him just and goodhearted on the condition that Madhav will take proper care of his wife after his death. Tara is the second protagonist, the first wife of Mathur who is a childhood friend of Madhav. She has a soft corner for Madhav as she knows he is the better and a principled man. Mathur remarries Champak and takes her as his second wife. Mathur is jealous of Madhav and wishes to grab the estate he got through the will of their uncle Ramgopal. Sardar is the leader of a dacoit gang who is trying to steal the will of Ramgopal from Madhav so that Mathur may claim his right to that part of the estate. Bhiku is an allias of Sardar. Kanakmayee is a 30-year-old unmarried woman who befriends Matangini. Karuna is a servant of Mathur’s house who helps Tara.

Summary of Rajmohan’s Wife:

It is a women-centric story that revolves around a property dispute. The first woman to be discussed is Ramgopal’s old widow. She is a gullible, submissive woman whose husband recently died. Before dying, he gave rights to all his property to his nephew Madhav, an educated man who graduated from the University of Kolkatta. One may infer that Bankim Chandra depicted the character of Madhav in his own image. A young good looking man, well-educated, reading English literature while sitting on his armchair. Madhav has to take proper care of his aunt as this is the condition of the will of his uncle Ramgopal. However, Mathur, the cousin of Madhav is jealous of him. Madhav’s father had wasted all the share of his estate on gambling and alcohol while Mathur’s father was a cautious person who taught Mathur how to manage the estate and servants. Mathur is an antithesis of what Madhav is. He is impatient, jealous, greedy, rude, and inhuman to servants and others. To grab the rights on his dead uncle Ramgopal’s estate, he plans to instigate his widow's aunt to file a case in court that the will was forged. Another part of his plan is to steal the original will from Madhav so that his aunt may win the case in court. He manages to instigate his aunt against Madhav and to succeed in the second part, he appoints a notorious dacoit Sardar who, along with his right hand Bhiku, tries to rob Madhav’s house. Their accomplice is Rajmohan, a greedy, rude, and corrupt man.

The second woman is Matangini, an 18-year-old, beautiful married woman who is principled and honest. She belongs to a poor family. Her younger sister is Hemangini. Ramkanhai once saw Hemangini and wished her to become his daughter-in-law. He had devoted himself to the better education of his child Madhav and he wished to get him a good, beautiful submissive wife. Madhav agreed to his father’s wish. However, Matangini was the elder sister. So Hemangini’s father decided to marry Matangini first. Matangini had seen Madhav and he was the person she dreamt to spend her life with. But Madhav’s marriage was arranged with her younger sister Hemangini and she could do nothing about it. She was happy for her sister. In haste, Matangini’s father gives her hand to Rajmohan, without enquiring much about him. He is a lazy, greedy person with no money and no proper education. He is a frustrated man who is always rude to his wife Matangini. Matangini asks Hemangini to talk to Madhav and get a job for Rajmohan so that their financial condition may improve. While Hemangini fails to talk about this to her husband, Madhav himself offers a job to Rajmohan and asks him to shift to his estate in Radhaganj and work as the supervisor. Rajmohan feels insulted by this offer and rejects it furiously. However, he has nothing else to do. Thus, he accepts it and shifts to Radhaganj. Now the two sisters are living in the neighborhood. One other neighbor of Matangini is Kanakmayee who becomes a close friend of Matangini. Whenever Rajmohan mistreats her, Matangini shares her pain with Kanakmayee. Kanak knows that Matangini is trapped in wedlock with the wrong person. She is the only one who knows that at heart, Matangini loved Madhav, her younger sister’s husband.

One day, Matagini goes to fetch water from the well with Kanak. She covers her face in her saree but when she returns, a gush of air removes the veil from her head. Two men, Madhav and Mathur see her from Mathur’s window. Madhav recognizes her as his sister-in-law. Mathur takes a deep breath as he is impressed and sexually aroused by this beautiful woman. Madhav admonishes him for his reaction. Back at home, Rajmohan gets angry at her for leaving home without his permission and shouts at her. Matangini silently faces the abuse hurled at her by Rajmohan. As he calms down a little bit, she goes to her chamber and locks herself up. In the evening, when Rajmohan’s aunt asks her to have some food, she declines and pretends as if she is sleeping. She thinks of her childhood days when she was always happy with her sister. To get some air, she opens up the window of her chamber and sees two silhouettes talking to each other. As she listens to them, she comes to know that one of them is Rajmohan, her husband, and the other one is the notorious dacoit Sardar. They are planning to attack Madhav’s house to rob him. Rajmohan confirms that the will that Sardar wants to rob is at Madhav’s house and gets a promise for obtaining a good share of the loot.

Madhav is her sister’s husband, Matangini couldn’t let any harm reach his house. Thus, she decides to go against her husband and warn Madhav about the imminent attack. She visits Madhav’s home and informs him that she has heard the Dacoit Sardar is going to attack his house. She doesn’t mention her husband’s involvement though. Madhav alerts his guards and servants and when Sardar attacks his house, he is forced to run back away.

When Rajmohan finds that Matangini isn’t at home, he realizes that she got some inkling of his plan. He scolds her and tries to kill her. However, Sardar reaches his home at the right moment. Sardar believes that Rajmohan double-crossed him and informed Madhav himself. As he attacks Rajmohan, he painstakingly tries to calm him down and explain that it was his wife who informed Madhav. Meanwhile, Matangini runs away from there to save her life and reaches Kanak’s house for help. Kanak takes her to another girl Suki’s home. Suki’s mother promises to help her and takes her to Mathur’s house. At Mathur’s house, Matangini meets Tara, another woman of substance who remains ready to stand for just and right. She promises to help Matangini. When Mathur returns home, Tara informs her about Matangini. Mathur listens to what happened and decides to let Matangini stay at his home. However, his second wife Champak isn’t happy about it. She is younger than Tara. Mathur married her for her sexual charm. But Matangini is obviously more beautiful than her and she is jealous of her. She worries that Matangini may attract all attention of Mathur. She argues that Mathur shouldn’t allow her to stay at home. At the same time, Rajmohan arrives at Mathur’s house and asks to let him take his wife back as he has forgiven her. Matangini is sent back to her home despite her reluctance. Rajmohan requests Suki’s mother and his sister Kishori to escort Matangini back to his home as he has some rather important work to do. When Rajmohan returns home, he finds that Matangini is missing, she never reached home.

Later on, Sardar and his henchmen attack Madhav’s house once again, and instead of robbing him, they abduct him and take him to a dark lonely basement of a godown. At Mathur’s house, Tara notices that her husband is disturbed and worried. She asks him but Mathur says that he cannot reveal anything yet. Tara and Mathur listen to a loud shriek coming from the back of the garden and Mathur rushes toward it. Tara sees him going away and realizes that something is wrong.

In the godown, Madhav’s eyes are blindfolded and as the other men torture him, he realizes that there are three other men along with him. He asks them what they want but he gets no answer. As the three men discuss him, he hears a familiar voice, the voice of Mathur. He addresses Mathur and asks what does he want? Mathur says that he wants the will of Ramgopal. After contemplating for a while, Madhav agrees to offer the will to him and asks for a page and pen to write a letter to his family members. All this while, a strange, frightening shriek keeps coming from the back of the godown. As the darkness of night engrosses the atmosphere, the shriek starts threatening Sardar and his henchmen and they decide to run away. Mathur is also forced to go back. Madhav has already written a letter and asked for the delivery of the will so that he may return. Now when Madhav is alone, he tries to free himself and run away. But as he does so, he stumbles and meets Tara. Tara is his childhood friend. They used to go to school together and became best friends. Like Matangini, Tara always felt that Madhav is a perfect man and always respected him. She knew something is wrong and thus, she followed Mathur and reached the godown. She helps Madhav get rid of the remaining restraints. Suddenly, they hear the same shriek again. Tara notices that it appears a loud cry of some woman. Madhav and Tara investigate the shriek and find Matangini bound in a dark room with cloth stuffed in her mouth. They free Matangini up. She informs that Suki’s mother is working for Mathur and she brought her to this godown where Mathur threatened her to submit to him. Matangini defied him and challenged him and said, “Look; I am a full-grown woman, and at least your equal in brute force. Will you call in allies?” Then Sardar and Bhiku came and bound her in restraints and mouth gag. Thus she came to know that Mathur, Sardar, and her husband Rajmohan are planning together to rob Madhav.

Madhav takes Matangini to safety in his house with the help of Tara and Karuna, his home servant. As she meets Hemangini, Matangini expresses her wish to return to her father’s house. Madhav complains to the police. The next day, Sardar meets Mathur and informs him that the police are searching for him. He informs that Bhiku has been arrested and he has confessed his involvement while revealing the names of Sardar, Rajmohan, and Mathur in the robbery and abduction of Madhav in front of the newly posted Magistrate. Mathur realizes that he has lost all reputation and he cannot save himself now. Later, in the morning, he commits suicide. Sardar runs away to oblivion while Rajmohan is arrested. Tara mourns the death of her husband and decides to manage the estate in a better manner. Matangini returns to her father’s home and Madhav continues to lead a happy life with Hemangini.

Bankim Chandra Chaterjee was known for his Hindu nationalist views. He was a modern educated person who wished to work for the making of a better, stronger, and free Indian society. Rajmohan’s Wife is often considered an allegory in which Bankim Chandra represented Matangini as the personification of modern India. She is confident, strong, and ready to stand against the wrong, yet vulnerable. Matangini represents an emergent, strong-willed, attractive, yet cautious young India. Mathur represents a corrupt, rude, immoral, yet socially privileged class that is trying to recapture India to exploit. In the novel, Mathur is described as “an exceedingly apt scholar in the science of chicane, fraud, and torture”. He is crude, vulgar, and corpulent with a tall build bald head, and dark complexion. He wears a gold amulet, a gold chain, gold studs on his shirt, and wears rings on all the fingers of his hands. He abducts Matangini and imprisons her in the cellar of his godown “determined to gratify at once both revenge and lust”.

Madhav is totally opposite to Mathur. He is “a remarkably handsome young man of about twenty-two”. He is well-educated and though he belongs to the same socially privileged class of Zamindars as Mathur, he is principled. Yet, he lacks the energy and vitality that Matangini and Tara exudes. The other man is Rajmohan who represented the younger class of Bankim Chandra’s time that got lampooned and affected by colonialism. Rajmohan represents a person who couldn’t value his people, his society, his country, and his civilization. In the novel, Rajmohan is offered a job by Madhav. Had he been principled and honest, he might have worked wonders. Yet, he chose to be disloyal to him and looked for easy money by getting involved in the plan of Mathur and Sardar to rob Madhav.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.