Long Day’s Journey Into Night by Eugene O’Neill | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Eugene O’Neill won his first Pulitzer prize in the year 1918 for his play Beyond the Horizon. Anna Christie was published in 1920 and it won his second Pulitzer prize. He again won his third Pulitzer prize in 1928 for Strange Interlude. He died on November 27, 1953. In 1956, he won a posthumous Pulitzer prize for his play Long Day’s Journey into Night making him the only author with four Pulitzer Prizes along with his 1936 Nobel prize for literature. He wrote and completed Long Day’s Night into Journey in the year 1941, but insisted that this play must not be published or made public until 25 years after his death. He did not even copyright this play. Soon after his death, his then-wife forced the play to be published and performed and it proved to be the best work of Eugene O’Neill, which in fact, was an autobiographical play.

The play depicts the happenings of a single day from early morning to midnight in August 1912. The Long Day refers to the situations faced by the members of the Tyrone family and how they end up unresolved and unanswered. Long Day’s Journey Into Night is a tragedy and it is considered one of the best American tragedies along with Tennessee William’s A Streetcar Named Desire, and Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. All four members of the family are facing their own failures while they accuse each other and thus, fail to find any affection, encouragement, compassion, tenderness, and a solution to their problems.

Characters of Long Day’s Journey Into Night

James Tyron is a 65 years old Broadway actor who has been doing the same role for years to ascertain financial stability. However, this has turned him into a stereotypical actor who fails to get versatile roles and proper recognition. He is too much thrifty and his miserliness has led to many problems for the Tyrone family over the years. He is a religious Catholic but has stopped visiting the church. Though he is an alcoholic, he is healthy with a good physique. He is obsessed with money and his only fear is dying in poverty, and thus he is stingy. His wife Mary Tyron is 54 years old but she looks younger, beautiful, and appealing. She is a morphine addict who just returned from rehab but failed to get rid of her addiction that she got during the harrowing birth of her youngest son Edmund as the doctor prescribed her limited cheap morphine as a painkiller. She became dependent and never got rid of it. Throughout the play, she remains self-delusional and nervous, failing to differentiate between the present and the past. Jammie Tyron is James and Marry’s eldest son who is a struggling actor. He is 33 years old. He is an alcoholic and whoremonger that has ruined his reputation and health. Jamie got measles at the age of seven and infected his younger brother Eugene Tyron. While Jamie recuperated, Eugene Tyrion failed and died at the age of 2 years. Mary was more affectionate for Eugene and she believed that Jamie had the intent to harm Eugene. Edmund Tyron is James and Mary’s youngest son. Mary conceived him after the death of Eugene. Edmund is attractive like his father and mother. He is an intellectually inclined poet but hasn’t attained success as a writer. He has some socialist leaning as he has traveled the whole world while working in the merchant navy. He got tuberculosis during one such tour on sea. Cathleen is a housemaid at age 20. She is oblivious or unconcerned about the troubles of Tyron's family members and remains "amiable, ignorant, clumsy with a well-meaning stupidity".

Summary of Long Day’s Journey Into Night

It is a four-act play that takes place in the family hall of Tyron’s house. The play is set in August 1912. Mary and James enter the family hall after taking their breakfast. Mary recently returned from a sanatorium for her morphine addiction. Their son Edmund has also returned from his foreign tour as he works in the merchant navy. Recently, he has got a disturbing cough problem and his health is deteriorating. Edmund enters the hall with his elder brother Jamie. Jamie and James have a tense relationship as Jamie has proven himself a failed actor despite his father being a well-established actor. James accuses his failure to his alcoholism and womanizing attitude. Jamie and starts arguing with James about his miserliness that has caused so many problems for the family. He says that James is like Old Gaspard", a character from the opera Les cloches de Corneville, who is also a miser. Edmund and Mary intervene and try to calm both of them. Edmund then tells a joke about one of their tenants. However, James doesn’t appreciate his joke as it shows his socialist leanings. James accuses him of being an anarchist. Jamie gets offended and decides to go upstairs to his room. He coughs disturbingly while going upstairs. James notices this and says that Edmund appears to be truly sick and he is worried. Jamie is also worried about Edmund but Mary refuses to believe that Edmund is sick and doesn’t want James to mention his sickness. She decides to go to the kitchen and supervise Cathleen who is the housemaid. As she goes away, Jamie and James discuss her health with Edmund. Jamie says that Edmund might be suffering from consumption. While both are compassionate towards Edmund, they soon start arguing over their own differences. James accuses Jamie of being directionless and advises him to control his alcohol abuse and remain away from women. He wishes Jamie to convert to Catholicism and visit Church regularly. James on the other hand isn’t religiously inclined. He blames his father for the family problems and accuses him of being the cause of Mary’s addiction to morphine. He says that she turned into an addict because of her husband’s bargain hunting and the consequent shoddy medical care. During the birth of Edmund, Mary suffered intense pain and difficulties while delivering. The doctor advised some pain killers but Jamie consulted his friend Doctor Hardy to get some cheap options and Doctor Hardy provided some cheap controlled morphine to reduce pain. Mary continued to use morphine to relieve her pain and soon became addicted. Soon their accusations become heated arguments. Mary returns at the same moment and both men shut their mouths. Both Jamie and James decide to go and mend the garden and the grass of the lawn.

Edmund returns to the hall and starts talking to Mary. He is worried about her health and wants her to get rid of her addiction. She says that she has overcome her addiction and says that she is more worried about Edmund’s health. Edmund is not convinced that Mary has gotten rid of her addiction. He says that she should forget her past and take care of the present. Mary tries to avoid the discussion and says that it is all because of the miserliness of James because of which she never got a real home. Edmund then goes to the lawn to rest under the shade leaving Mary alone.

After some time, Mary goes upstairs to her room while Edmund returns to the hall where Cathleen is cleaning up. He starts a friendly banter with Cathleen when Jamie returns to the hall and sneaks some alcohol from his father’s closet. After taking some drink, he says that Mary has been too long upstairs alone and he fears she is taking morphine again. Edmund opposes him and says that she has stopped taking morphine. Mary comes downstairs and her disheveled hair and detached manner confirm Jamie’s suspicion. Edmund is forced to accept that his mother failed in getting rid of her addiction. James enters the hall too and realizes that Mary has used morphine again. They take their lunch together and soon Mary goes upstairs again to take her next shot. Cathleen has been ignorantly helping her in getting morphine. As soon as she goes upstairs, the three men start arguing again. Soon the phone rings and James goes to attend to it. It is a call from Doctor Hardy. Edmund and Jamie notice their father’s manner after he returns from the call and surmise that it is not good news. Edmund decides to go upstairs to talk to his mother while James informs Jamie that Edmund is suffering from tuberculosis. Jamie urges his father to not act miserly again and provide better medical care for Edmund. He goes out and waits for Edmund so that both brothers may go to the town for some lighter moments. Mary and Edmund return downstairs to the hall. Edmund tells his mother to resist taking any more morphine. Mary refuses to accept that she has taken any, though it pretty clear from her confused eyes and uncontrolled speech. Edmund leaves with Jamie to the town. As James and Mary are alone, they talk about Edmund. Mary and James decided to give birth to Edmund because of the death of Eugene, their second son who died at the age of 2. Jamie was 7 years old then. Jamie got sick with measles and Eugene got the infection from him. While Jamie recuperated, Eugene failed and died. Mary says that Jamie had this inclination to harm his younger brothers and this is the reason why Edmund is sick now. James also comes out to the lawn. Mary is alone in the hall. At first, she is relieved that nobody is going to question her about morphine now. But soon she starts feeling lonely and that worries her. She calls Cathleen and they start chatting. She offers whiskey to Cathleen and asks about her childhood dreams. Cathleen says that she would like to be a nun or a concert pianist. Mary also tells her about her youth and how she fell in love with Tyron and left her vocation.

In the evening, Edmund and James return from the town and observe that Mary has taken more morphine and she is delusional. Mary faces Edmund and warns him of Jamie. She says that Jamie doesn’t like Edmund and wants him to be a failure like he is. She then starts talking about Jamie’s childhood and how her son got addicted to alcohol because of his bad habits of James. Mary reminds James of their marriage. She talks about their first night and how much she loved her husband. She starts talking about her wedding gown and how she ruined it. She doesn’t remember where is her wedding dress now. Edmund again tries to convince her mother to stop using morphine but talking about the past hurts Mary so he stops and leaves. James and Mary are alone again. He asks her to take dinner with him. But she decides to go upstairs again as she is not feeling hungry. James realizes that she is going to get some more morphine and he doesn’t stop her.

Edmund returns late at night and finds his father alone, playing solitaire. He starts talking to him and they have an argument over Mary’s addiction. Then James tells Edmund about his childhood and how he faced poverty. He says that he continued to play the same role to ascertain financial security but this has ruined his career. He says that despite being a talented actor, he cannot get any better roles now because he has been stereotyped. James then says that his only fear is to die in poverty and that is why he is stingy and tries to save as much money as he can. Edmund understands his father better now. He tells him about his experiences at sea and how he hopes to become a successful poet. Jamie knocks on the door at the same time and James realizes that he is drunk again. He goes away from the hall to avoid any argument with Jamie. Jamie comes in and starts talking to Edmund. He says that though he loves Edmund, he doesn’t want him to succeed as a poet and he will try to make Edmund fail. Jamie is too much drunk and he passes out. James goes to his drawer and notices that Jamie has stolen some of his alcohol. He comes back to the hall and sees Jamie snoozing. He sits down with Edmund. Jamie wakes up after some time and James starts quarreling with him over alcohol. Mary comes downstairs at the same time with her wedding gown in her hands. The men notice that she is out of her mind and is in the deep effect of morphine. She barely recognizes them while talking about her marriage as if she is lost in the past. She says how she has sacrificed her vocation to marry Tyron. Her husband and sons watch her helplessly while she is not able to recognize them. The play ends at the midnight with no solution to the problems of Tyron's family.

It was an autobiographical drama. Eugene O’Neill’s father was an actor while his mother was also an actor who got addicted to morphine. Eugene O’Neill himself worked as a sailor and he got consumption during one of his tours on the sea after which he was admitted to a sanatorium for health care. Later on, he established himself as a writer and won four Pulitzer prizes. The character of Edmund Tyron is based on Eugene O’Neill.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Coolie by Mulk Raj Anand | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mulk Raj Anand’s second novel Coolie was published in the year 1936 and it established him as one of the most popular and successful Asian anglophone writers of his time. Like his first novel (Untouchable) Coolie also depicts the story of an Indian adolescent teen experiencing the harsh realities of the British Indian establishment. The term coolie is outdated. It was first used during the late 16^th century by British traders to refer to a low-wage unskilled laborer particularly belonging to India or China. By the 18^th century, coolie specifically became a term to refer to Indian-indentured labor. It was as derogatory as Niger or similar other words were. In the 20^th century and especially after the end of the British Raj in India, the term Coolie changed to refer to porters at railway stations.

The novel depicts the misfortunate journey of Munnoo from the small village of Himachal to the big city of Bombay and back to Shimla in a year in which Munnoo spends his whole life. Along with describing the ill effects of British rule and poverty in India, Mulk Raj Anand stressed the infective politics of communism and the ill effects of religionism (Hindu-Muslim riots) in this novel.

Characters of Coolie by Mulk Raj Anand

Munnoo is an orphan adolescent teenager of age 14 living with his uncle Dayaram and his family. Dayaram and his wife are not very kind to Munnoo and soon he is sent to work as a house servant at the home of babu Nathoo Ram whose wife is against a harsh lady. However, Nathuram’s younger brother Premchand is kind to Munnoo and Nathuram’s daughter Shiela becomes his friend. Mr. England is the British officer of the bank where Nathuram works. Prabhadayal is a businessman who offers work to Munnoo at his factory of pickles. Ganpat is Prabhadayal’s corrupt and disloyal business partner. Tulsi is another young laborer at Prabhadayal’s factory who makes Munnoo realize that he is growing up. Sir Todarmal is another businessman who offers loans to Prabhadayal and his son Ramnath is a sub-inspector in the British police. Harihar and his wife Lakshmi work at Sir George White Cotton Mills in Bombay. Munnoo saves Harihar’s younger son by risking his life and Harihar then helps Munnoo in getting a job in the factory where he works. Englishman Jimmi Thomas, also known as Chimta Saab is the foreman of the Mill. Ratan is another worker at the Mill who is a brave and physically strong person who raises his voice for the welfare of laborers as he is a member of the All India Trade Union Congress. He saves Harihar and Ratan against the atrocities of Chimta Saab and other bullies like Pathan who also works at the Mill. Sauda is a communist leader of the Red Flag Union who instigates Ratan to declare a strike to raise their political power. Omkar Nath is a Congress Union leader. Mrs. Mainwaring is an Anglo-Indian woman who is an adulteress. She employs Munnoo as a rikshaw puller cum page but her intention is to exploit young Munnoo for her own pleasure. Mohan is another rikshaw puller appointed by Mrs. Mainwaring who becomes a friend of Munnoo. Dr. Merchant is the health officer of Shimla who examines Munnoo and concludes that he is suffering from consumption.

Summary of Coolie by Mulk Raj Anand

Munno is an orphan who is being taken care of by his unkind uncle Dayaram and his wife. He lives in a village in the Kangra district. As he turns 14 years old, his uncle tells him that he can no longer afford his education and he must work to earn a living from now on. Munnoo is unskilled and uneducated. The next day, Dayaram takes Munnoo to the house of Babu Nathuraam who is a banker in the nearby city of Shamnagar where he is indentured as a domestic servant. Babu Nathuram and his wife whom Munnoo calls Bibii are no better than his uncle and aunt. Bibiji keeps exploiting him and pressuring him with overwork. However, Nathuram’s younger brother Premchand is kind to him. One day, when Nathuram’s officer visits him for dinner, Munnoo accidentally drops a tray with cups of tea and breaks all the crockery. He gets a strong beating from Bibiji after that. Shiela is the daughter of babu Nathuram who becomes a friend of Munnoo. One day, while playing with her, Munnoo acts and dances like a monkey which exhilarates Shiela. This excites Munnoo further and he goes on to act an attack like a monkey and bites Shiela on her cheek in a childlike manner. This enrages Nathuram and he beats him mercilessly. Munnoo feels he won’t survive long at Nathuram’s house and decides to leave. He reaches the railway station and boards a train going to Daulatpur. On the train, he meets a businessman Prabhadayal. He is very kind to Munnoo and decides to take him to Daulatpur where he may work and stay at his factory of pickles. Prabhadayal’s partner Ganpat is not very happy about it but he doesn’t oppose it.

Situations aren’t very healthy at the factory in Daulatpur where Munnoo starts living. Yet, he feels his life is better than what it was at Babu Nathuram’s house. He meets Tulsi at the factory who is the same-age girl. Munnoo feels attraction toward the opposite gender for the first time. Pabhadayal’s partner Ganpat defrauds the factory and Prabhadayal finds himself burdened with loans to Sir Todarmal. As Prabhadayal is unable to pay the loan, Todarmal’s son, sub-inspector Ramnath takes him to custody where he is beaten. Finally, Prabhadayal decides to sell his factory and go back to his village after paying the loans. Munnoo again finds himself jobless and homeless. He tries to work as a coolie at the Grain Market and Vegetable Market but fails to get enough money to make two-time meals. He also tries to test his luck at the railway station as a coolie but fails again.

He comes in contact with some circus workers who brag about the opportunities of work in Bombay, a huge city afar. Munnoo decides to board a train to Bombay. The circus people and their animals were also moving to Bombay on the same train. During the travel, a child is attracted by the elephants of the Circus and decides to take a close look. The elephant tries to hit the child with his trunk but Munnoo saves the child in time while risking his own life. Harihar is the father of the child who works at a cotton mill in Bombay. He is going back to Bombay with his wife Lakshmi and two children. He is grateful to Munnoo and suggests that he will help Munnoo to get a job at the same mill where he works.

Harihar requests Jimmie Thomas, the foreman of Sir George White Cotton Mill to provide jobs for his wife Lakshmi, his elder son, and a friend Munnoo. Jimmi Thomas is a cruel manager who not only exploits workers through overwork at a meager salary but also robs them by forcing them to live in the huts owned by him at high rent. Mill workers call him Chimta Saab because of his cruel practice of beating workers with an iron Chimta for minute mistakes. Munnoo gets a job at the mill and he starts living with Harihar’s family in his hut and shares the rent. Being an unskilled worker, he takes time in learning how the mill machines work, and on the very first day, when he tries, he almost gets trapped in the machine that could have caused great injury to him but is saved by a strong healthy worker named Ratan. Ratan is a wrestler and he is vocal about laborers' rights. Whenever Chimta Saab bullies mill workers, Ratan stands up in support of workers to oppose him. He saves Munnoo and Harihar many times from the atrocities of Chimta Saab and his henchman Pathan, who is also a mill worker. One day, during the heavy rains of Bombay, Harihar and Munnoo’s hut gets completely ruined. Ratan offers them a small room in his chall where he lives. The room is smaller than their hut and Harihar, Lakshmi, their two sons, and Munnoo have very little space to sleep. Munnoo gets so impressed with Ratan for his help that he starts following him at every instance.

One day, Harihar takes his sick children to the medical facility while Ratan goes to meet a prostitute. Munnoo follows Ratan and that is the first time he feels the need for a female relationship. He soon returns to his room while Ratan stays in the prostitute’s room for the night. In his room, Ratan finds Lakshmi alone, waiting for Harihar. She knew where Ratan took Munnoo. She grasps the condition of this young lad who is gradually becoming an adult. She asks him to come close and takes him in her embrace near her breasts and says that they all belong to the suffering class and hence, are one. She presses him close to her with a peculiar passion that creates a desire in his heart. That night Munoo forgets everything for the pleasure of making love to Lakshmi.

At the mill, Jimmi Thomas is too pissed over Ratan’s interventions in support of laborers. He decides to sack him. Ratan gets infuriated and complains about his termination from the All India Trade Union Congress of which he is a member. Omkar Nath, the leader of Congress investigates the matter and finds that the mill is suffering losses and hence the management has decided to reduce some expenditures by reducing the workforce. Ratan is not satisfied with this explanation but Omkar Nath suggests he be patient. Meanwhile, another competing Labour Union Organization of Communists, headed by local leader Sauda makes contact with Ratan. Sauda tells him that the Union Trade Congress won’t help him as Omkar Nath has connections with mill management and invites him to join his union named Red Flag Union. Ratan joins them and Sauda instigates him to collect all the workers and declare a strike until the management agrees to increase payment of workers and reinstate Ratan at his job. Ratan gathers all the workers in a meeting to be addressed by him and Sauda. Munnoo and Harihar also go there along with all male workers.

Meanwhile, the mill management learns that workers have declared a strike on behalf of the communist Red Flag Union and they spread a rumor that the Mohemmdan Pathans have kidnapped the children of Hindu workers and they are planning to attack their homes at night. As this false news spreads among the workers, they start fighting with the Muslim workers at the meeting place. Sauda realizes that the management has played tricks to divide the force of workers in Hindu Muslim biases. He tries to manage the crowd but fails. A sudden burst of Hindu-Muslim riots destroys their plan for the strike. In the ensuing violence, Munnoo gets separated from Harihar and Ratan. He tries to find them but fails. As he sees a mob coming towards him, he hides in a broken wagon and spends the whole night in it. The next morning when he wakes up and comes out of the wagon to examine the situation, a motor car comes towards him from the backside and hits him. He gets unconscious. Mrs. Mainwaring was traveling in that motor car. She is an Anglo-Indian woman who is an adulteress. She married and divorced many times and she has aseverallovers. When she sees Munnoo, she gets an interest in him and takes him to her residence in Bombay. She gets medical help for him and soon he gets well. She appoints him as her page and a rikshaw puller and decides to take him to Shimla with her.

Munnoo is happy at returning to the hills where he took birth and spent his childhood. He is no more a child now, he is 15, and a lover boy of Mrs. Mainwaring. She not only uses him for her unquenchable desires but also makes him work hard as a rikshaw puller. She has three more rikshaw pullers along with him and one of them is Mohan who becomes a close friend of Munnoo. Mrs. Mainwaring continues to exploit him and his body soon starts showing fatigue as he catches tuberculosis because of the extreme conditions he suffered at the factory in Daulatpur and at the mill in Bombay. He starts bleeding coughs and suffers a high fever. Mrs. Mainwaring calls Dr. Merchant, one of her lovers, to check Munnoo’s health. After examining, Dr. Merchant informs Mrs. Mainwaring that Munnoo is suffering from consumption and advises her to remain away from Munnoo to avoid getting infected. Mrs. Mainwaring stops meeting him but does ensure that he gets proper medication and care. However, his health is too much deteriorated and soon, he dies. He was just 15 years and a few months old at the age of his death.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

The Way of the World by William Congreve | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. William Congreve was an English dramatist and poet of the Restoration period. He was known for his satirical dialogue and he had a great influence on the comedy of manners style that was prominent during that period. However, he rose to the stage at a time when the style of comedy of manners was declining and the public was turning away from the sort of high-brow sexual comedy of manners. It was the same period when Jeremy Collier scathingly attacked the Restoration comedies and dramas in general in his pamphlet A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage. Thomas Rymer was already resisting the comedy of mannerism with his call for poetic justice. William Congreve gave a lengthy reply to Jeremy Collier in his pamphlet "Amendments of Mr. Collier's False and Imperfect Citations” but he did leave the stage.

William Congreve studied at Kilkenny College along with Jonathan Swift who was his classmate. At the age of 17, he moved to London to study law and during that time, Congreve wrote his first play "Incognita: or, Love and Duty reconcil'd" which was published in 1692 under the pseudonym Cleophil. That won him praise from literary critics including John Dryden who became his mentor. In 1693, Congreve’s first play The Old Bachelor was performed, and John Dryden promoted it as a brilliant first piece. It was a comedy of manners. His other plays include The Double Dealer (1694) and Love for Love (1695) which were both comedies and The Mourning Bride which was a tragedy and was first performed in 1697. Congreve’s last play was performed in Lincoln’s Inn Fields in 1700 and it was titled The Way of the World. The play didn’t succeed at that time. It was one of the last comedies of manners of the Restoration period. However, the play proved to be an important one later on.

George Farquhar raised the issue of women trapped in abusive wedlock in his play The Beau Stratagem in which he devised a way to offer monetary support for the divorcing wife Kate Sullen. John Vanbrugh also raised the issue of women trapped in abusive marriages in his plays Relapse, Or Virtue in Danger, and The Provoked Wife. William Congreve also mentioned the troubles of a mismatched marriage and the issue of the property rights of a woman. One of the major themes of The Way of the World is inheritance and a woman’s right to her parent’s property. As the title suggests, The Way of The World is a satirical comedic commentary on the then society and norms of England.

Characters of The Way of The World

Mr. Fainall is a married man who married Mrs. Arabella Fainall who was a widow, for the money that she inherits from her late husband and her mother Lady Wishfort. He is a greedy person who was already in a relationship with Mrs. Marwood before his marriage to Mrs. Arabela. Mrs. Marwood continues to be his mistress as his only intention to marry Mrs. Fainall is her money. Mrs. Arabella Fainall on the other hand was in love with Mr. Edward Mirabel who once was a womanizer but now has changed. Mr. Mirabel isn’t of a wealthy background. He helped Arabella and Lady Wishfort in engineering Arabella’s marriage to Mr. Fainall to protect Arabella from scandal in the event of pregnancy. However, Arabella didn’t get pregnant. Arabela and Mirabel are now friends while Mirabel fell in love with Miss Millament who is a niece and ward of Lady Wishfort, cousin of Mrs. Arabella Fainall. Miss Milament has a huge inheritance of 12000 pounds but she holds only 6000 pounds of it while the remaining 6000 pounds are in the custody of Lady Wishfort. Lady Wishfort doesn’t approve of her marriage to Mirabel and wants her to marry Sir Wilfull Witwoud who is a nephew of Lady Wishfort. He is an inept bumbling man who tries to pursue Ms. Millament romantically. His half-brother Anthony Witwoud is also a suitor of Ms. Millament. Waitwell is a servant of Mirabel who marries Foible, a servant of Lady Wishfort without her knowledge. Later on, Mirabel and Ms. Millament devise a plan to project Waitwell as Sir Rowland, an uncle of Mirabel who will woo and propose to Lady Wishfort to marry him and then lead situations to convince Lady Wishfort that Mirabel is the best man for Ms. Millament. Foible is aware of his plan. Lady Wishfort is uncomfortable with her age and looks, and this allows Mirabell's plot with the fake Sir Rowland to succeed as far as it does.

Summary of The Way of The World

The Way of The World is a five-act play. The background of the play is that Mirabel, a young, handsome but poor man used to be a womanizer who got into an affair with a rich widow named Arabella. However, Arabella’s mother Lady Wishfort didn’t approve of his marriage to Arabella because of his poor background. To protect Arabella from any scandal because of his affair with her, he helped Lady Wishfort to arrange the marriage of Arabella with Mr. Fainall who is a reputed but greedy and corrupt person. He marries the widow Arabella only for the fortune of Arabella that he needs to finance his affair with Mrs. Marwood. Meanwhile, Mirabel changed as a person and puts an end to his affair with Arabella while he remained her well-wisher and a close friend. Later on, he falls in love with Arabella’s cousin Miss Millament who is the niece of Lady Wishfort.

Miss Millament loves Mirabel and wishes to marry him. She has a huge inheritance of 12000 pounds but half of it is in the custody of Lady Wishfort who is completely against her marriage with Mirabel. Lady Wishfort wants Millament to marry Sir Wilfull Witwoud whom Ms. Millament finds inept and undeserving. Lady Wishfort is aging but she still believes that she is very attractive. Mirabell had earlier offended Lady Wishfort; she had misinterpreted his flattery as love.

Mirabel and Ms. Millament devise a plan to save her inheritance while they get married and for this, Mirabel takes the help of his servant Waitwell. They plan to introduce Waitwell as Sir Rowland, an uncle of Mirabel. As Mirabel knows that Lady Wishful has the desire to fall in love and get married, he plans to fake uncle Sir Rowland to woo and win Lady Wishfort’s love. Then Mirabell will reveal the reality of Sir Rowland to save Lady Wishfort and in response will get the approval of Lady Wishfort for his marriage to Millament. To make their plan fool-proof, they arrange the marriage of Waitwell to Foible before he pretends to Sir Rowland so that he may not be able to trap Lady Wishfort to his contract. Thus, Waitwell is secretly married to Foible without Lady Wishfort’s knowledge and Foible becomes a part of the plan. As Waitwell is already married to Foible, his fake marriage to Lady Wishfort will be illegal and will be nullified.

The play begins as Mirabel is playing cards with Mr. Fainall. Mr. Fainall isn’t happy with Mirabel as he knows that he has tricked him twice. He suspects that his wife Mrs. Fainall is a former mistress of Mirabel. The more troubling fact is that Mrs. Marwood, who is Mr. Fainall’s mistress, appears to be more interested in Mirabell. Mrs. Marwood wishes to marry Mirabell as Mr. Fainall is already married to Arabella. Thus, Mr. Fainal has been stung by Mirabel twice. Meanwhile, Ms. Millament is in true love with Mirabel but playfully teases him while their marriage is uncertain.

Mirabel is nervous about his plan but it is going well. Foible and Waitwell are now married and Waitwell has taken the disguise of Sir Rowland to woo Lady Wishfort.

Meanwhile, Mrs. Marwood is flirting with Mirabel and as he goes away to confirm the marriage of Foible with Waitwell, she follows him. Accidentally, she overhears the conversation between Mrs. Fainall and Foibel as they discuss the former love affair between Mirabel and Mrs. Fainall as well as his current plan of marrying Ms. Millament. Furthermore, she also overhears Mrs. Fainall cursing her as Mr. Fainall wastes her money on his mistress. Foible also makes fun of Mrs. Marwood by commenting on how she is trying to woo Mirabel. This makes Mrs. Marwood vengeful against Mirabel as she now knows that she cannot get him. She goes back to Mr. Fainall and tells him about his plan for Mirabel. She further reveals that his wife used to be a lover of Mirabel. Mr. Fainall gets enraged but instead of acting rashly, he along with Mrs. Marwood devise their own conspiracy to gain the most profit out of the situation.

Meanwhile, Mirabel introduces Sir Rowland to Lady Wishfort as his uncle and Sir Rowland soon starts flattering and flirting with Lady Wishfort who again feels her desire to get in love rekindle. On the other hand, Miss Milament declares that she will marry Mirabel and rejects Sir Wilfull Witwoud’s proposal. Mr. Fainal then comes into action as he catches Sir Rowland and unmasks him as Waitwell, a servant of Mirabel. He then blackmails Lady Wishfort with the threat of ruining her and her daughter’s reputation. He says that since Millament has decided to marry Mirabel by rejecting Sir Wilfull Witwoud, her balance fortune controlled by Lady Wishfort should be forfeited and transferred to him. He further demands that Lady Wishfort should assure him that she will never marry and hence he will remain the sole heir of his wife’s property.

When Ms. Millament listens to all this, she decides to save her balance of inheritance controlled by Lady Wishofort and changes her decision, and declares that she will marry Sir Wilfull Witwoud. This ruins Ms. Fainall’s plan. Yet, he continues to press that Lady Wishfort should immediately hand over all his wife’s money to him and should declare him the caretaker of her wealth too. Mirabell tries to dissuade the situation and put some pressure on Mr. Fainall by bringing Waitwell and Foible upfront as witnesses of Mr. Fainall and Mrs. Marwood’s extramarital affair, he brazenly ignores it and asserts that he will still drag Mrs. Fainall’s name in scandal and ruin lady Wishfort’s reputation.

Now is the time for Mirabel to reveal his trump card. He says that he and Arabella always knew that Mr. Fainall is a corrupt, greedy person, and hence, to protect herself, Arabella appointed Mirabel the trustee of her fortune much before her marriage to Mr. Fainall. Thus, Mr. Fainall has no claim on her fortune nor Lady Wishfort can offer it to Mr. Fainall as Mirabel holds that right. Mr. Fainall is now completely defeated as neither Mrs. Fainall nor Lady Wishfort controls their money and he can put no pressure on Mirabell. He is very angry and frustrated and decides to go away with Mrs. Marwood. Meanwhile, Sir Wilfull Witwoud takes his proposal to marry Millament back and claims that Mirabel deserves her. Lady Wishfort is also convinced that Mirabel will take good care of Millament like he saved her and her daughter Arabella’s fortune. She forgives the servants and offers her wishes to Foible and Watwell for their married life and agrees to offer her consent for the marriage of Mirabel and Millament.

The play ends in reconciliation as Mirabel and Millament conciliate despite Millament giving up her love to save her fortune. Sir Wilfull Witwoud also forgives Millament while Lady Wishfort forgives Mirabel, Waitwell, Foible, and Arabella for fooling her around. The theme of the play includes fashion, courtship, seduction, property rights, and women’s rights to their inheritance in marriage.

William Congreve was known for witty and intelligent dialogues in his plays. One of the famous dialogue from The Way of The World is “"One's cruelty is one's power; and then one parts with one's cruelty, one parts with one's power; and when one has parted with that, I fancy one's old and ugly." While this quote is said by Millament, it shows the fear of Lady Wishfort, who is losing her power, her cruelty, and her strength, and becoming old and helpless, which makes her desperate to be confirmed as beautiful and powerful.

Just like George Farquhar’s Kate Sullen from The Beau Stratagem, William Congreve’s Arabella also saves her fortune despite getting divorced or separated from their husband.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

The Iceman Cometh by Eugene O’Neill | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Eugene O’Neill was an experimentalist who introduced techniques of realism into American drama scenes. In 1946, Eugene's one of the most successful dramas The Iceman Cometh was produced. The Iceman Cometh explains the importance of pipe dreams for the outcastes as these pipe dreams or delusions can let them have a sense of contentment, happiness, and togetherness. These pipe dreams are a psychic defense or coping mechanism of the outcastes to handle the other world of reality. Eugene O’Neill explains through this drama that being forced to face the truth isn't always the best option. The Iceman Cometh ensembles a huge cast. There are twelve dead-end alcoholic men and three declining prostitutes. All these people are outcastes or failures who have been alienated by society. Somehow, they gather at a place aptly named No-Chance Saloon, as they hardly have any chance. Despite being outcasts, they can make their own community and have a sense of worth, though delusional. This community allows totally different people to get connected. A Black guy finds friendship in white men, and a disgraced former anarchist finds solace in presence of prostitutes and former police officers. Two downtrodden ex-generals who represented opposite sides of a war could have a toast together. All these characters are suffering nostalgia for their earlier self and want to somehow return to their old life which is impossible, but they do have hope and that is their pipe dream. Almost all dramas of Eugene O’Neill involve some degree of tragedy or personal pessimism but The Iceman Cometh has a sense of hope, though delusional. Eugene showed the life and stories of fringe people in all of his dramas and The Iceman Cometh is a fine example.

Characters of The Iceman Cometh

Harry Hope is a 60-year-old gaunt man who once was a successful person and was going to be an Alderman. Then his wife Bessie Hope died and it derailed his life. He owns a saloon and a rooming house named No-Chance Saloon where people may come and have a drink and they can stay. Some 12 men are staying at his saloon for a long. He hasn’t left the saloon for 20 years. However, he claims that he is planning to go out and meet the neighborhood and then he will easily win the election and will be an Alderman. Ed Mosher is the brother-in-law of Harry, brother of the late Bessie Hope. He is a fat guy who is indolent and amusing. He used to collect tickets at a circus and he wishes to get on the same job again. Pat McGloin is another fat slovenly guy who used to be a police lieutenant but was fired for taking bribes. He dreams of returning to the police force and clearing his name. Willie Oban is a young drunkard who is the son of a big-time criminal. He attended Harvard for law but dropped out for his addiction to alcohol. He wishes to go back to college and get his degree and become a lawyer. Joe Mott is an African-American man with a strong build and a scar on his face. He used to run a gambling house. He dreams of opening a gambling house only to black patrons. Piet Wetjoen is a dutch man who fought for South Africans during the Boer War as a General. He dreams of returning to the Netherlands. Here, his closest friend is Cecil Lewis, a British who fought the Boer War as a Captain, against the General. Jimmy Tomorrow or James Cameron is a reserved, intelligent, and elegant man who once used to work in publicity but was fired.

Hugo Kalmar is an anarchist foreigner with a German accent. He is a die-hard devotee of Movement (the socialist anarchist movement) though he dreams of living a bourgeois life. Larry Slade is a former syndicalist-anarchist who once was the part of Industrial Workers of the World Movement but he left the Movement. He had a close female friend Rosa Parritt who is a strong supporter of the Movement. She is a loving mother and a careless one too who gave more importance to her own freedom and the Movement. She is a practitioner of free love. she once had a relationship with Larry Slade. She is the mother of Don Parritt who was also involved in the Movement but was disturbed by his love and hate for his mother. Parritt's anonymous tip gets her thrown into jail for her radical actions. Parritt feels immense guilt and seeks solace from Larry but Larry fails to do so. Finally, he tells Parritt he ought to commit suicide to atone for turning his Mother in. Rocky Pioggi is the night bartender at No Chance Saloon who maintains Pearl and Margie as prostitutes but maintains that he is not their pimp. Pearl prefers to consider herself a tart while Margie insists that she is not a whore. Chuck Morello is the day bartender at Saloon. He is elderly and wishes to marry Cora an older prostitute and move to a farm in New Jersey.

Theodore Hickman is an attractive successful traveling salesman who visits the saloon every year and offers free drinks and dinner for the inmates. He tells jokes and brings a new sense of life to the bar. However, when he appears this year, he is a changed man who claims he doesn’t drink as he has realized his potential. He urges other people to get rid of their pipe dreams and endeavor to make them real. He pushes them to try to get rid of their delusions and face the reality as is it and make out of it. He urges them to become self-aware and accept their potential. Later on, it comes out that he is the most delusional one and tries to hide his guilt of murdering his wife Evelyn Hickman who according to him was a kind, forgiving, generous, and loyal woman who always turned a blind eye to Hickey's faults and loved him unconditionally.

Summary of The Iceman Cometh

The drama is set in 1912. No Chance Saloon is owned by Harry Hope and it is situated on the west side of downtown Manhattan. Harry Hope hasn’t left the saloon since his wife died 20 years ago. His patrons, including his brother-in-law Ed Mosher, McGloin, Willie, Captain Cecil, General Piet, Joe, Jimmy, and Larry are sitting idly in the bar. Hugo is drunk enough to sleep quietly on the chair. It is the day when usually Theodore Hickman or ‘Hickey’ arrives every year and offers free drinks and dinner for his friends in the bar. Everyone is waiting for him as he brings a party-like mood along with him and makes everyone smile. Everyone is waiting for him to visit the bar. It is Harry's 60^th birthday and they hope to begin the party as Hickey arrives.

All of them are drinking, snoozing, and bickering among themselves. Occasionally, one can hear a slight laughter of the two girls Pearl and Margie sitting among the men. A young man arrives and rents a room in the Saloon. He sits among the people. He is a good-looking young handsome man but he seems disturbed as he sneers around. He looks towards Larry and claims that he knows Larry Stadle from the old days when they both were part of the Movement. Larry feels a little uncomfortable and tries to ignore him. The young man says his name is Don Parritt and soon he starts talking with the group. The topic of his discussion is his Mother whom he says he loves too much but shows his anger and frustration for her too. He exclaims how good and caring mother she has been and then he explains how often she was not there for him when he needed her most because she was devoted to the IWW Movement. His contradicting talks disturb Larry more and he moves away from him. Parritt informs that he is in New York on the run from police as the police got some anonymous tip and arrested many of the Movement radicals, including his Mother.

As the people of No Chance Saloon accept Parritt as their new inmate, Theodore Hickman arrives. However, everybody notices a change in him. He is not as noisy and raucous as he used to be. He still appears cheerful and jovial but he appears soberer than ever before. He announces that he has given up alcohol as he had a sudden realization that he can be a better man. He claims that now he has given up all his pipe dreams and rather is interested in making his dream come true in reality. He claims that now he is at peace with himself as he is now self-aware and knows his potential which he is working to increase. He says that he is willing to help everyone in the saloon, who are his friends, to get rid of their pipe dreams and accept their real selves and lead a better life. The group isn’t too happy with Hickey’s speech. They were hoping for fun and drinks from him but what he brought is a challenge to get rid of their pipe dreams. The party begins to celebrate Hope’s 60^th birthday but he is very upset as Hickey is especially pushing him to get up and have a walk outside the saloon, which has been his pipe dream. Hope doesn’t feel he is prepared for that.

Larry is observing all of them and soon he realizes that Hickman is causing troubles in their minds. Larry himself has no delusion about himself, but he realizes that the breaking of the dreams of his mates may cause serious damage to their personal selves. He tries to dissuade Hickman from his trick and asks him what happened to him. He reminds of the joke Hickey used to tell about catching his wife in bed with the iceman but is quickly shut down when Hickey announces serenely that his wife is dead. Hickey pushes everyone to get rid of their idle self and push themselves to make their dream come to reality.

Gradually, everyone is preparing to get up and move out to try to work for their dreams to come true. The bartender is cleaning up the tables. Joe prepares to go out and see if he can open his gambling den; McGloin, Mosher, and Jimmy seek their old jobs back; Willie plans to go to the D.A. to start practicing law; the Captain and the General try to get a job so they can make money to pay their fares back home; Chuck and Cora head out to get married; Rocky decides not to be a bartender anymore and be a real pimp to Margie and Cora; Hugo mumbles about making the proletariat his slaves; and the Hope grudgingly steps out to take his walk.

As Hope goes out, Rocky wonders if he will be able to come back. Hickman ascertains him that everything will be all right. Outside, Hope stands awkwardly on the curb and gradually starts walking into the middle of the street, he takes two or three steps and then turns around and rushes back into the saloon in fear. He reaches the bar and takes a heavy drink down his throat.

Larry tries to soothe Hope and then he confronts Hickman and asks him what lead him to this madness. Rocky suggests that maybe his wife committed suicide. Hickman confirms that his wife was recently murdered. He says that was a kind, forgiving, generous, and loyal woman who always turned a blind eye to Hickey's faults and loved him unconditionally. He claims that it is good that she got murdered and got rid of him.

Soon everyone who went out to try working out their dreams and achieve them in real, return to the salon. All of them are confused, depressed, and sad. They look at Hickman with suspicious complaining eyes. Hickey is particularly upset about Hope who actually went out and fulfilled his dream of walking in the street. He wonders why Hope is not content now and why every one of them wishes to continue their suffering.

Two police officers enter the saloon as they see Hickman talking to the people, they wait and stand at the door of the saloon in patience. Hickman continues to address the pipe-dreamers. He says that his wife was a charming lady while he was always a troublemaker. Despite all his atrocities and adultery, she kept loving him and remained loyal. She loved him through every transgression, every absence, every mistake. She had this dream that one day, Hickman will be a better man, more responsible and true to her, and to himself. Gradually, Hickman started feeling the guilt of being with such a pious woman. He had two options, either to improve and be the better man that he should be or to get rid of his wife. He contemplated divorcing her, or leaving her and never visiting her again, but that would have hurt her more than he didn’t wish. So he decided to murder her. He says that his act brought her the peace she deserved because loving him was more torturous than death. He pauses for a moment and then says that he cursed her after killing her. But how could he curse her? She was the most pious woman he knew and if he cursed her, it only suggests that he is insane. He then looks towards Hope and implores with his eyes to agree with him. Hope thinks for a while and it reminds him how Hickman forced him to go outside. He looks at the policemen and exclaims that yes, Hickman is crazy. Everyone else thinks that if Hickman is crazy, then all his efforts to shatter their pipedreams were a consequence of his craziness and they are not bound to ruin their pipedreams. Thus, everyone harangues the police and claims that Hickman is insane.

The policemen lose their patience. One of them shouts at the saloon inmates that they should stop protecting Hickman, he is a murderer who will definitely get a death sentence. Hickman smiles at Hope and says that he doesn’t care about death and the police take him away. Meanwhile, Don Parritt confronts Larry and says that he has something to confess. Larry tries to ignore him again but Parritt insists. He says that the anonymous tip to the police that resulted in the arrest of many radical Movement supporters including his mother was given by him. He says that he had nothing against the other radicals but he hated his mother and wished her to suffer. He looks at Larry as if he hopes to be condemned, scolded, and abused by him so that he may get rid of the guilt that is building in him. Larry remains calm though. Ultimately, he says that Parritt will never attain peace this way, he urges him to end his life as this can be the only way to end his torture. Parritt smiles and goes towards the room that he recently booked. He jumps off the window of the room and commits suicide. Larry meanwhile realizes that he has a huge bag of his own torture but unlike Parritt, he cannot get relief so soon as he fears death as much as he hates his life.

Meanwhile, the other inmates are back to their own selves now when Hickman is out and away from their life. They embrace their pipe dreams again and start enjoying their indolent and inebriated life.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Untouchable by Mulk Raj Anand | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mulk Raj Anand was an Indian writer who prominently wrote in English and popularized Anglo-Indian fiction through his novels and short stories. He was a socialist who engaged in himself in the Indian Independence Movement. However, most of his novels and short stories attack various aspects of India's social structure, social biases, caste system, as well as the legacy of British rule in India. He is especially known to shed light on the lives of lower caste people who are treated with great bias and unfairness. Almost all of his novels and short stories like Untouchable, Coolie, The Big Heart, Two leaves and a Bud, etc. touch on the problems of the political structure, oppression of classes, untouchability, and so on. Anand was born on 12 December 1905 in Peshawar of British India, now a part of Pakistan. He died on 28 September 2004 at the age of 98 in Pune of Independent India. He completed his graduation from Khalsa College, Amritsar in 1924, and then he earned a Ph.D. in Philosophy from Cambridge University, England. His dissertation was on Bertrand Russell and English Empiricists. Bertrand Russell was known for his anti-imperialist ideas as he chaired the Indian League during the 1930s.

During his days in England, he came in contact with T.S Eliot and worked for his magazine Criterion. He grew a friendship with E.M. Forster who was also working for Criterion. His first novel was Untouchable which was published in the year 1935 and its introduction was written by E.M. Forster. During World War II, Anand worked as a scriptwriter for BBC in London, and during that period, he came close to George Orwell who wrote an appreciating review of his 1942 novel The Sword and The Sickle. Some other important novels by Mulk Raj Anand include Coolie (1936), The Village (1939), Across The Black Waters (1939), and The Private Life of An Indian Prince (1953). He was offered the International Peace Prize of 1951 and in 1971, his English novel Morning Face won the Sahitya Academy Award in India. In 1967, he was offered Padma-Bhushan, the third-highest civilian award in the Republic of India.

Characters of Untouchable by Mulk Raj Anand

Bakha is a young Indian boy belonging to the low sweeper caste who is the son of the head of his town’s sweeper caste. Bakha is an intelligent boy with an inquisitive mind. His father Lakha is a strict person who wants his son to understand his place in society and perform his tasks appropriately, while he is lazy and tries to avoid his duties. Bakha doesn’t appreciate his work as a sweeper. The story is about the experiences of Bakha during a single day. Bakha’s mother died after giving birth to Rakha, his younger brother. Bakha believes that his father turned sour and abusive right after her death. Sohini is Bakha’s elder sister.

Charat Singh is a military sentry of the town who doesn’t care about caste biases though he belongs to a high caste. Chota and Ramcharan are his two friends. Chota and Ramcharan belong to the washerman caste which is considered higher. Gulabo is the mother of Ramcharan who doesn’t like the friendship of his son with Bakha as he belongs to a lower caste. She is jealous of Sohini too as Sohini is very beautiful. Bakha likes Ramcharan’s sister but her marriage has been fixed and he is not happy about it but he knows he could never marry her because she belongs to a higher caste. Waziro is another woman who belongs to the weaver’s caste. Unlike Gulabo, she isn’t mean to people of lower castes. Pundit Kalinath is the priest and is in charge of the town’s temple. He is a corrupt person who tries to exploit Sohini for her sexual appeal. Burra babu is an influential high-caste man of the town whose sons are of the same age as Bakha. They invite him to a match of hockey. The Doctor of the town, a high-caste man who is also very benevolent and duty-bound saved Bakha’s life when he was terminally ill during his childhood. Colonel Hutchinson is an English Evangelist who tries to convert Bakha to Christianity but his wife shouts at Bakha for being an Indian and of low caste and Bakha realizes that changing religion won’t change his situation and runs away from the church. The novel also includes a fictional speech by Mahatma Gandhi in the town that Bakha listens curiously to. R.N. Basheer is a lawyer who criticizes Gandhi’s speech and calls him a hypocrite. However, Iqbal Sarshar, a poet opposes him as Bakha listens to their debate and takes some helpful lessons from it.

Summary of Untouchable:

The entire novel revolves around the single-day activities, experiences, and accidents of Bakha who belongs to the lowest caste of the Indian caste system. He lives in a mud house with a single room along with his younger brother Rakha, elder sister Sohini and father Lakha. His home is on the outskirts of the town of Bulashah near the police barracks. Lakha is a sweeper who cleans the latrines of other people of higher castes. He is the leader of all sweepers and assigns the duties of all sweepers in different areas of the town. It is early morning and Bakha is still sleeping on his bed. Lakha shouts at Bakha telling him to go and start his share of work but Rakha is feeling lazy and hesitant which angers Lakha. Bakha doesn’t like his work and he is more interested in the way English people live. He and his friends call English people ‘Tommies’. Lakha abuses him but Bakha continues to ignore him. But then he hears another angry voice of Hawaldar Charat Singh who wants him to clean his latrine so that he may start his day. Bakha becomes attentive and takes his sweeping broom and runs to do his work astutely. He doesn’t soil himself and shows proficiency in his work. Charat Singh goes to the latrine and after completing his daily routine, he appreciates Bakha and suggests that he will offer a hockey stick to him. Charat Singh is a famous hockey player and Bakha is also very good at hockey. This makes Bakha feel elated and he continues to perform his task of cleaning the latrine as many people visit the latrine to take their turn. After he is free of his duty, he returns home and finds Lakha still sleeping there. As he is thirsty, he looks for water but there is none. Sohini picks up the pot and goes to get some water from the well. No outcaste is allowed to take water from the well by himself. They must wait for someone from a high caste to get water from the well and pour it into their pitchers. As there are many other women of different lower castes waiting for someone from a higher caste to arrive and offer them water, Sohini stands in the queue behind Gulabo, a woman of the washermen caste. Gulabo doesn’t like it as she is comparatively of a superior caste to Sohini. She starts abusing her and calling names like a prostitute, bitch, etc. She is jealous of Sohini for her beauty. Sohini tries to dissuade the situation and smiles at her but Gulabo continues her attack and as she is about to slap Sohini, another woman Waziro who belongs to the weaver caste stops her and saves Sohini. Sohini is appalled, and she decides to stand alone, away from the queue.

Pundit Kali Nath arrives and decides to offer water to the waiting women. As he observes Sohini standing alone, he calls her first and fills her pitcher. He sees her with lust and asks her to visit the temple for a cleaning job later. Sohini takes water and returns home.

At home, Lakha is still sleeping. When Sohini returns, he scolds her for being late and asks her to gather her brothers and take them to their duties. He tells Bakha that he is not feeling well and Bakha should do his part of the work too. Bakha knows that his father is just feigning illness but he doesn’t argue. He drinks his tea and goes towards the temple where he is required to sweep. On his way, he meets Rakha, his younger brother along with Chotu and Ramcharan, who are his friends. Ramcharan is Gulabo’s son. He informs that his sister is going to marry. Rakha feels sad about it. Ramcharan’s sister used to be his childhood friend. He had intense feelings for her and they used to play games pretending to be husband and wife during their childhood. However, he realizes that being of a lower caste, he can never actually marry her. Bakha tells Rakha to join him in cleaning the latrines of the colonies but Rakha isn’t interested and goes home. Rakha decides to do the work alone. As he moves forward towards the town temple, he sees the sons of Burra Singh coming towards him. He greets them with respect and they start talking. They invite them for a hockey match that evening to which Rakha, Chotu, and Ramcharan agree. Rakha observes that they are going to school. He too wishes to go to school but he cannot attend as he is an outcast.

Bakha goes towards the temple. He still remembers Ramcharan’s sister. To get away from that emotion, he buys a cigarette and as he cannot ask for fire from any Hindu of a higher caste, he goes to a Muslim man and asks for burning coal to light his cigarette. As he passes by a shop, he decides to buy candy and starts munching on it. He is happy as he got this taste after so long. A high-caste man rushing towards him accidentally touches him and then starts shouting at him. Being an outcaste, it was Bakha’s duty to sing the chant of outcastes and avoid touching him but he was unattentive. Soon a big crowd gathers him and starts shouting at him. However, a horse buggy merchant arrives and disperses the crowd. The man is still angry and he slaps Rakha for touching him before he goes away. Bakha is sad and furious. He starts crying but couldn’t resist the slap nor could answer it. The buggy merchant tries to console him and he leaves for the temple. A shopkeeper reminds him of the chant of untouchables to sing while going to the temple and he starts singing. While moving towards the temple, he contemplates what just happened. He realizes that the work he does is so repugnant that nobody wants to be in touch with him.

He reaches the temple and finds peace there. He starts sweeping the lanes of the temple. As he sees some worshippers coming towards the temple, he starts chanting the song for outcastes to avoid any mishap again. He gets curious about the temple that he never saw from inside as being an outcast, he isn’t allowed inside the temple. He dares to approach the temple but just before entering the main door, he decides not to and returns to his work. He is listening to the hymns and prayers of other worshippers in the temple and it soothes him. Suddenly, he hears Pundit Kalinath shouting at Sohini for impuring him by touching. He reaches Sohini who informs him that Kalinath tried to sexually exploit her by touching and when she resisted, he started accusing her. Soon a big crowd gathers around Bakha and Sohini, accusing Sohini. Bakha decides to confront the crowd and informs them that Kalinath tried to molest Sohini. The crowd reduces their shouts but none of them dares to question Kalinath. Sohini realizes that situation may turn against Bakha and her and asks him to let it go and leave. He agrees and tells Sohini to go back home while he will go to gather food. Sweepers were supposed to clean latrines of society, colonies, and homes and in return would ask for food from people of high caste. As his mother wasn't alive, he, Sohini, and Rakha used to ask for prepared food. Sohini returns home and he goes from street to street to beg for some food so that his family can eat. But today is a hard day, no one offers him food. As he gets tired, he sits under a tree in front of a house. A Sadhu appears and asks for food as alms and a lady comes out of the house to offer food to Sadhu. As she sees Bakha sitting in front of her door, she shouts at him and he moves away. Another woman comes out from the neighborhood and offers some food to Sadhu and gives a chapati to Bakha with the same benevolence. However, the first woman gives Saadhu some food but asks Bakha to clean the gutter of her house before she gives him some food. Bbbbaligently cleans the gutter but as he looks for the food, the woman throws a chapati in front of him as if he is a dog. This disgusts him. He picks up the bread, throws away his sweeping broom, and runs towards his home.

At home, Lakha is alone as Rakha has gone to the barracks to beg for food. As Bakha reaches home, Lakha gets angry as he brings just two pieces of bread. Bakha says that he doesn’t know many people to ask for food. Lakha says that he must know people as it is the only way for him to get food in the future. He realizes that Bakha is distraught. He asks what happened to him. Lakha informs him about the accident and the slap he got and how Pundit Kalinath treated Sohini and him. Lakha tries to console him and says that high-caste people are superior to them and they should respect them. He then says that not all high-caste people are bad. Then he tells a true story of Bakha’s childhood when he was very little and got ill. When Lakha went to the doctor, who belongs to a high caste, he had to wait outside to get some prescriptions. But before he could meet the doctor, he got information that Bakha is about to die. So he forcefully entered the doctor’s clinic where many high-caste patients were sitting and they got appalled at seeing him. But he begged the doctor to help him save his child. The other people threw him out. Frustrated, when he reached home, he found Bakha barely alive as he was having difficulties in breathing. Suddenly, he heard a knock on the door. The doctor came to his home breaking all barriers of caste to protect Bakha and saved his life with proper medicines. Listening to this, Bakha feels relieved and happy. Soon Rakha returns with more food. As Bakha sits to eat some, he realizes that the food Rakha brought is taken from the remains of other people’s plates. This again repels him and he decides to go away making an excuse to attend Ramcharan’s sister’s wedding.

He visits Ramcharan’s house but doesn’t dare to enter alone as he fears Gulabo who is known for her hatred towards lower caste people. Chotu joins him and together they enter Ramcharan’s house. Ramcharan sees them and greets them and comes towards them. He opens a handkerchief full of sugarplums and asks Bakha and Chotu to eat. Bakha refuses and tells him to throw some sugarplums to him that he will pick. This dismays Ramcharan but Chotu realizes that Bakha has gone through some terrible experience. He asks what happened and Bakha fails to control and tells them about the slap he got and how Kalinath treated Sohini. Chotu gets hyper and suggests a way to take revenge on Kalinath which Bakha ignores. Then Chotu reminds him of the hockey match with Burra Babu’s kids. Ramcharan says that they should go home if they have to play hockey in the evening. Chotu goes home and Bakha goes to meet Charan Singh to take a new hockey stick.

At Charan Singh’s home, he finds no one outside and decides to wait for him. Charan Singh comes and enters his home without noticing Bakha. Later on, Bakha decides to call for him. Charan Singh happily greets him and takes him to his house. He offers him some tea despite being a man of high caste. Bakha reminds him and Charan Singh happily offers him a hockey stick. Charan Singh says that Bakha is a good player but he should devote more time to practicing. Bakha is happy after getting such a generous response from Charan Singh, a man of high caste. His new hockey stick fills him with enthusiasm.

On the ground, Barru babu’s younger son brings all the hockey gear. Bakha, being a member of the lowest caste, cannot play with boys of the high caste. Chotu says that he is a bearer of English Sahib to mask his real identity and thus Bakha gets a chance to play. Bakha proves to be a brilliant player and soon scores a goal against the team of Burra Babu’s son. Their goalkeeper gets angry and hits Bakha’s leg. This creates a ruckus and Chotu asks his teammates to attack the other team. Ramcharan picks a stone and throws which hits Burra babu’s younger son and he falls unconscious. Bakha sees him bleeding on the head and swiftly picks him up to take him to his home. As Burra Babu’s wife sees her son bleeding and in hands of an outcaste, she starts shouting and accusing Bakha of murdering her son. Bakha tries to say that Ramcharan hit him and it is not his fault but she doesn’t listen and curses him. Bakha runs away to his home. He hides his hockey stick and enters the home. Lakha is angry at him for remaining away for so long while they had to work. He shouts at him and tells him to o away and never return. Bakha is exasperated. He decides to leave and runs outside.

He reaches afar and sits down under a peepal tree near a church. Colonel Hutchinson sees him and goes to him. He touches his soldier and asks why he is so distraught? Bakha gets emotional and tells him all that happened to him during the day. Hutchinson says that Jesus died for the sins of the Brahmins and Bhangis. He encourages him to accept Christianity and offers him food and cloth if he visits the church with him. Bakha agrees and Hutchinson takes him inside the church where his wife is waiting for him. As she sees him with a black Indian of low caste, she shouts at him and abuses Bakha. Bakha realizes that changing religion is no solution and runs away from there.

He reaches a place where a large crowd has gathered to listen to a speech by Mahatma Gandhi. He decides to listen to the speech. Mahatma Gandhi arrives and says that caste discrimination is the biggest curse on Indians and requests people to discriminate against people for their caste. He says that lower caste people should attain equal opportunities, and proper education, they should be allowed in temples, and should attain basic rights of humanity. Bakha is impressed by Mahatma Gandhi. The speech ends and people start to move away. Soon he hears a voice criticizing Mahatma Gandhi for being a hypocrite. He comes to know that the man is a lawyer named R. N. Basheer. Another man, who is a poet named Iqbal Shahar opposes him and says that though Mahatma Gandhi did commit some mistakes overall, he is great and honest. He says that soon caste system will go away as new technology is coming up which will allow people to clean their latrines by themselves through flushes without getting their hands dirty. The latrines would be clean without humans and the cleaning profession would completely vanish resulting in the eradication of the untouchables. Bashir cannot respond to the claims of Iqbal and they leave.

Bakha finds it interesting as he feels that his work makes people disgust him. He is happy. He is cleansed of all the bad things that happened on that day. Bakha then decides to follow the instructions given by Mahatma Gandhi. He understands that having a flush system would decrease the problems faced by untouchables and heads back home to say all these things to his father.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected to the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Venice Preserved, Or A Plot Discovered by Thomas Otway | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d was one of the most successful Restoration period tragedy play that was written by Thomas Otway and was first performed in 1682. It is a political drama that gained momentum in the background of the Rye House Plot which was a plan to assassinate King Charles II of England and his brother (and heir to the throne) James, Duke of York. People of the Restoration era also had strong memories of the Poppish plot and hence general public was enthusiastic about discovering plots against the state. Thomas Otway depicted a lucid conspiracy of rebels to overthrow the state and how that plot was foiled.

Venice Preserv’d have many similarities with William Shakespeare’s Othello which was inspired by Cinthio’s Hecatommithi. Shakespeare’s Desdemona marries a moor Othello against her senator father’s wishes and Otway’s Belvidera marries Jaffeir against her father’s wishes. Othello kills Desdemona and himself, and Jaffeir kills Belvidera and commits suicide. However, unlike Shakespeare’s Othello, Otway’s Jaffeir fails to gain the sympathies of the audience. Despite his tragic end, he fails to become the tragic hero Othello is.

In fact, there’s hardly any hero in Otway’s Venice Preserv’d. The rebellions who conspire against the senate are as greedy, power-hungry, tyrannical, immoral, and corrupt as the senators are. There’s no better side, and thus, Otway presented this drama as a She-tragedy, the tragic lead is Belvidera who gains all sympathy.

Characters of Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d

Priuli is a senator of Venice who is comparatively honest and less corrupt than others. He has a daughter whom he loves very much, but not more than himself. Priuli can be compared to Shakespeare’s Barbantino from Othello. However, unlike Barbantino, he doesn’t conspire against Jaffeir to get his daughter back, he simply disowns his daughter when she marries a man without her father’s permission. Belvidera is Priuli’s daughter, a beautiful voluptuous girl who falls in love with Jaffier and marries him despite her father’s resistance to the marriage. She is a benevolent, affectionate, constant, and pure girl who is not gullible. She is intelligent and can be manipulative, but she is completely loyal to Jaffeir. Belvidera can be compared to Shakespeare’s Desdemona but unlike Desdemona, she is not a passive tragic heroine. Belvidera is much more prominent than Desdemona. She recognizes the corruption of the senate but when she comes to know that the conspirators are no better, maybe more corrupt and immoral than the senate, she convinces Jaffeir not to condone the plan of the conspirators, but to instead turn them into the senate. Later on, she manipulates her father, who has already disowned her, to pardon Jaffeir’s friend who conspired to kill Priuli by reminding him of her mother. Though the pardon comes a bit late.

Jaffeir is the husband of Belvidera who can be compared to Shakespeare’s Othello. He is expected to fulfill the roles of husband, friend, and rebel conspirator. However, he remains confused and cannot figure out the right path for him. He lacks any moral integrity. He also lacks appreciation for Belvidera’s love considering she gave up her father and privileges only to be with him. In addition, he lacks patience. Othello fell prey to the conspiracies of Iago who filled Othello’s heart with suspicion against Desdemona. However, Jaffeir knows that Belvidera is always loyal to him, yet he decides to sacrifice her and threatens to kill her if she fails to get a pardon for his friend.

Pierre is a friend of Jaffeir. He can be compared to Shakespeare’s Iago. He is a soldier of Venice who conspires against the senate and plans to murder Priuli. However, unlike Iago, who had no reason to act villainous, Pierre has a proper reason. He is the lover of Aquilina, a high-class courtesan whom a corrupt senator Antonio exploits and uses for his lust. When Pierre comes to know about it, he complains against the senator to the senate of Venice and asks for justice. However, the senate ignores the charges and claims that Antonio's behavior was a privilege entitled to the senators. This angers Pierre. As Priuli is a senator, he decides to murder him and brings Jaffeir into the conspiracy by exploiting his hatred against Priuli. Antonio is a corrupt senator who is lewd, immoral, and lecherous. He exploits Aquilina and often treats women with disdain. He addresses Aquilina as his “little Nacky” which indicates a female genital organ. Renault is the bloodthirsty head of conspirators. While he exploits the anger and frustration of Pierre and Jaffeir for his purpose of attacking the senate and gaining power, he is as corrupt and tyrannical as Antonio. He forces Jaffeir to keep his wife, Belvidera in his custody as a guarantee of his allegiance, and then he tries to rape her.

Venice Preserv’d as a She-Tragedy

Overall, Otway shows that none of the men treat women as they should. Priuli disowns his beloved daughter for she disobeyed him and married a man she loved. To get his revenge against Priuli to disown Belvidera and hence disallow Jaffeir his share of Priuli’s wealth as his son-in-law, he decides to support the conspirators. When he is asked to keep Belvidera in Renault’s custody, he agrees to that and effectively transfers his authority over Belvidera to Renault. The same happens in Shakespeare’s Othello where Othello leaves Desdemona in the care of Iago. Jaffeir later threatens to murder his wife, the girl who left her father and privileges to be with him.

Pierre loves Aquilina, but he neither trusts her nor respects her. Pierre arranges meetings of rebels at Aquillina’s house but she is not allowed to attend any of those meetings or listen to anything related to their plan. Pierre never discloses his conspiracy to her as if she is untrustworthy. Aquilina is comparable to Shakespeare’s Emilia, the wife of Iago in Othello.

Instead of vouching for his friend Jaffeir’s loyalty, Pierre persuades him to keep his wife Belvidera in the custody of Renault. Renault, who becomes the custodian of Belvidera, tries to exploit and rape her. The whole drama is based on the depiction of women as an object of lust and control and Otay exploits the victimhood of women for the success of the play. Unlike Venice Preserv’d, Shakespeare’s Othello doesn’t depend on the pathos brought about by the unjustified treatment of women. Though, the murder of Desdemona and the death of Belvidera both bring about the same degree of lust. Belvidera reminds Jaffeir of Lucrece after she saves herself against Renault’s onslaught and reaches him. Lucrece committed suicide and to challenge the standard that requires suicide of (female) rape victims, which seems a tacit admission of their guilt, she demands Jaffeir take revenge. Her disheveled and unnerved state eroticizes her suffering which is the main ingredient of a She-Tragedy. The rape attempt of Belvidera is depicted in such a sexually explicit manner that brings forth her sexuality. In the case of Othello, Desdemona acts as a passive victim. She is sleeping when Othello kills her and her murder is also depicted as erotic as it could be. Othello stands over his inert and sleeping wife and states: "I will kill thee and love thee after." The situation is depicted as overtly necrophilic, suggesting that Desdemona will reach the utmost desirable state after her murder, the state where she will be silent, chaste, and obedient.

Summary of Venice Preserv’d, Or A Plot Discover’d

Jaffeir is a poor Venetian soldier who falls in love with Belvidera, the daughter of a highly prestigious and rich senator of Venice. Belvidera also loves him but Priuli, her father is against this relationship. Nonetheless, she elopes with Jaffeir and marries him, hoping that her father, who loves her dearly, will accept her marriage. Priuli couldn’t bear this and he publicly denounces and disowns Belvidera, cutting off her inheritance. This angers Jaffeir as he hoped to get rid of his penury after marrying Belvidera, the rich girl. When Jaffeir’s friend Pierre comes to know about this, he decides to infuriate Jaffeir more against Priuli for his own reason of revenge against the senate. A corrupt senator Antonio has been sexually exploiting and using Aquilina, Pierre’s beloved. Pierre complained against him in the senate but didn’t get justice. Thus, he made contact with Renault, a power-hungry, bloodthirsty conspirator who plans to overturn the government by attacking the senators. The most strong, most reliable, and most trustworthy senator is Priuli and if he is killed, Renault hopes that the general public will side with the rebels for the uprising. Pierre takes Jaffeir to meet Renault who manipulates him into murdering Priuli. Jaffeir has his own motive if Priuli is murdered, he is the legal husband of her only daughter, and will get all his wealth in inheritance. However, Renault cannot trust Jaffeir as he is the son-in-law of Priuli. Thus, Jaffeir agrees to keep Belvidera in the custody of Renault as a hostage until Priuli is murdered. Belvidera is unaware of the plot but Jaffeir transfers her to Renault’s place. They plan to murder Priuli the very next morning. When Renault sees Belvidera sleeping at his place, lust engulfs him and he attempts to rape her. Belvidera resists and runs away in a disheveled distraught situation. She reaches home and informs Jaffeir. Jaffeir tells her about the conspiracy. She asks him how could he support such wretched people who tried to rape his wife. She then suggests Jaffeir turncoat and inform the senate about the conspiracy to which he agrees. But he is worried about his friend Pierre. Belvidera then plans that Jaffeir will reveal the names of conspirators and then will claim their lives as his reward and thus, he will get a right to pardon Pierre and save his life. Jaffeir agrees and reveals the conspiracy to the senate. However, the senate doesn’t offer him the reward he sought and condemns all conspirators to death. Jaffier is distraught. He feels guilty of disloyalty towards his friend Pierre. He goes to Belvidera and curses her for making him the cause of Pierre’s death sentence. He threatens her that if she fails to get a pardon for Pierre, he will murder her. Belvidera is distraught. She just faced a rape attempt on her and now, the man for whom she left her father and all privileges is threatening to murder her. She goes to her father who has already disowned her. Priuli discards her again and rejects her plea to help her by getting a pardon for Pierre who conspired to murder him. However, Belvidera insists and reminds Priuli of her mother to whom he promised to protect Belvidera in all situations. Priuli submits and agrees to pardon Pierre. Belvidera runs to her home to inform Jaffeir but finds that Jaffeir has gone to imprisonment to meet Pierre. She follows him to jail.

Meanwhile, Javier meets Pierre who is about to be hanged. Pierre is crestfallen as he failed in taking his revenge. Furthermore, he is about to be hanged, and he will die a death of ignominy unlike a brave soldier in the battleground. He says that he has forgiven Jaffeir but demands him a favor and asks Jaffeir to murder him with his own sword before he is hanged. Jaffeir rushes towards him and stabs him with his dagger, killing him. Later on, Jaffeir feels such intense remorse for killing his friend that he commits suicide by running the same dagger on his throat. At the same time, Belvidera reaches the gallows and before she could inform that she has won the pardon for Pierre, sees the death of Pierre and Jaffeir both. This breaks her completely and she goes insane and dies.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!