After Apple-Picking by Robert Frost | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Robert Frost was an American poet whose work was first published in England and then he became popular in America too. He was born on March 26, 1874, and died on January 29, 1963.

The first poem that he sold for publication was My Butterfly, An Elegythat was published on November 8, 1894, in The Independent of New York.

Robert Frost was known for his realistic depictions of rural life. He worked as a farmer for 9 years, after which he returned to teaching and writing.

Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson introduced and popularized poetry in free verse and it gained momentum in America. The most common form of poetry in modernist America was free verse. However, Robert Frost liked the traditional, contained, a metrical form of poetry. He often commented that poetry in free verse is like “tennis with the net down.’ Furthermore, most of the other poets of his time were writing about science, solipsism, or the religion of the past century. Robert Frost rejected both trends with his use of idiomatic language and ordinary, everyday subject matter in traditional poetry forms. Robert Frost is the only English poet to win four Pulitzer Prizes for poetry.

“After Apple-Picking” is one of the most celebrated and admired poems by the American poet Robert Frost. It first appeared in his collection ‘North of Boston’ in 1923.

Structure of After Apple-Picking

After Apple-Picking is somewhat surreal in nature. He always disliked free verse but to maintain coherence with the conventional form of American poetry, he wrote this poem in lines of varied length and irregular rhymes that stretch the sense of sound and pattern.

The poem has 42 lines and each line ends with a full rhyme. The rhyme scheme continues to change throughout the poem in a dreamy way to match with the narrator’s tired and dream-like situation. While the poem contains mixed rhymes and varied meter, around 2/3rd of the lines are in iambic pentameter. The opening line of the poem has twelve syllables and is an iambic hexameter. The whole poem is written in first person narrative form in which a tired farmer describes the melancholic exhaustion after the intense and long labor of apple picking. Robert Frost offers metaphoric depth from simple imageries while dealing with the major themes of a) Renewal and death, following a working life fulfilled, b) Psychic disturbance as in the biblical Garden of Eden, c) Routine and reality versus free time, and d) the unconscious, and Time and the creative/poetic act.

Summary of After Apple-Picking

After Apple-Picking explores the relationship between humans and the natural world while depicting the special scenario of the end of the apple harvest and the subsequent physical and psychic consequences of the tiresome ordeal on the farmer near the end of his work. The poem shows the after-effects of repetitive creative work at the last hour when the worker is almost exhausted. The poet metamorphically suggests that the Apples are the all desires, achievements, goals, and victories of the man who is on the verge of his life. He has achieved a lot, but there are still some apples left to be taken. But he is tired and understands the uncertainty of life.

Lines 1-13

My long two-pointed ladder's sticking through a tree
Toward heaven still,
And there's a barrel that I didn't fill
Besides it, and there may be two or three
Apples I didn't pick upon some bough.
But I am done with apple-picking now.
Essence of winter sleep is on the night,
The scent of apples: I am drowsing off.
I cannot rub the strangeness from my sight
I got from looking through a pane of glass
I skimmed this morning from the drinking trough
And held against the world of hoary grass.
It melted, and I let it fall and break.

The narrator begins while giving the technical descriptions of apple harvest as he is picking the fruits. The two-pointed ladder which is used to climb upon an apple tree to pick apples is kept alongside a barrel that is yet to be filled. The narrator is too tired With sore feet and aching muscles, as it is the last hour of the work while he diligently kept working throughout the day, picking up ripe apples one by one. The narrator is too exhausted to worry about a few remaining apples not picked yet. He feels exhausted from the repetitive work and declares he is done with apple picking. It is winter and the whole atmosphere is full of the aroma of fresh apples. As he rests while still on the ladder, he thinks perhaps he sits and drinks his homemade cider, or rests on his bed. He is completely tired and as night approaches, he feels sleepy. That reminds him of the pane of glass he found from his drinking trough. When he looked at his image in that glass, he couldn’t recognize himself. He looked so tired and strange. He let the glass break that shattered his image.

Lines 13-29

But I was well
Upon my way to sleep before it fell,
And I could tell
What form my dreaming was about to take.
Magnified apples appear and disappear,
Stem end and blossom end,
And every fleck of russet showing clear.
My instep arch not only keeps the ache,
It keeps the pressure of a ladder-round.
I feel the ladder sway as the boughs bend.
And I keep hearing from the cellar bin
The rumbling sound
Of load on load of apples coming in.
For I have had too much

Of apple-picking: I am overtired
Of the great harvest I myself desired.

The narrator noticed the change and strangeness in the mirror but he is soo tired and sleepy that he doesn’t care much. He is gradually submitting to the sleepiness that is appearing heavier than before. The narrator is liking this embrace of sleepiness and thinks of the dreams he will have. He knows that he has been infatuated and involved with his chase of apples so much that even in his dreams, he will see nothing but more and magnified apples as they will appear and disappear. He will be clearly seeing the stem and fresh blossoms of apples. He then describes the act of picking apples and exclaims that he has had a good harvest as he can clearly listen to the sound of loads of apples coming into the cellar bin. Even now, when some of the apples are yet to be picked, he feels overtired and has already declared, heck with the apples, I am done. He then remembers how much he wished to grow apples as if it was his only desire. But one gets tired of chasing their dearest desires. Often one has to struggle so much to attain their goals that in the end, when they are so near to their goal, one fails to cherish them. The narrator is fed up with the labor which comes with harvesting and he sees in human nature as people get tired of even what they love and desire the most.

The apple itself is strongly associated with the Garden of Eden, Eve, and the Tree of knowledge of good and evil. The narrator is also suggesting that apples are like the desires he had during his life. However, he doesn’t correlate it with evil. His ladder symbolizes another Biblical expression of Jacob’s ladder up to heaven. But he is bound with the ladder by his instep arch, which keeps him feeling the burden of the ladder and the backache it creates. He has to reap what he has sowed to cherish the apples, his desires.

Lines 30-42

There were ten thousand thousand fruit to touch,
Cherish in hand, lift down, and not let fall.
For all
That struck the earth,
No matter if not bruised or spiked with stubble,
Went surely to the cider-apple heap
As of no worth.
One can see what will trouble
This sleep of mine, whatever sleep it is.
Were he not gone,
The woodchuck could say whether it's like his
Long sleep, as I describe its coming on,
Or just some human sleep.

The narrator is overwhelmed by the huge harvest of apples. He exclaims he has touched thousands thousand of apples, the desires that he successfully fulfilled. He carefully lifted each of the apples and did not let it fall while cherishing it in his hands. Each of his desires for which he struggled hard was precious to him. He remained careful because he knew that if the apple falls, it will end up in a heap of bins, ruined and wasted. The narrator is almost asleep and he didn’t need to count sheep as he had apples to count to get to sleep. His ladder appears like the ladder to heaven while he is about to enter the wonderland of his dreams. However, unlike Alice, who had a rabbit in the wonderland, the narrator sees only a woodchuck (a ground squirrel) who is about to hibernate as winter is coming. The narrator wonders if the sleep which is getting heavier and heavier on him with each passing moment will be like a human sleep, a hibernation after which, he will wake up afresh? The narrator knows that the woodchuck’s sleep will be troubleless. He wished the woodchuck might have solved this puzzle to him and cleared if it is just a human sleep or the long immortal sleep that comes at the end of life, but the woodchuck is already in hibernation.

The varying rhyming scheme of the poem creates interest while encouraging the reader to pay more attention to the words and their metaphorical meanings. The iambic pentameter is dominant in the mix with dimeter and trimeter, giving a reflection of the loss of control as a person slips into sleep. The important symbols used in the poem are as follows-

After Apple Picking: After Apple Picking as a whole poem symbolizes life and death.

Apple Picker: The role of the apple picker (speaker/narrator/poet) clearly symbolizes the uncertainty of life as a farmer/worker.

Apple Picking: Apple picking symbolizes worldly affairs in routine daily life.

Apple: Apples are the symbol of desire, deeds, and actions in life.

Apple Tree: Apple tree is a symbol of this world that provides a different way to achieve goals.

Empty Barrel: Empty barrel in After Apple Picking symbolizes the unfulfilled desires, wishes, and goals of a man.

Woodchuck: Woodchuck symbolizes a long sleep that might be a normal sleep or death.

Drowsiness: It symbolizes tiredness due to excessive engagement in worldly affairs.

Evening: Evening and the start of dark/night symbolize the end of life or impending death.

Ladder: The ladder symbolizes the technique and ways to earn goals.

Swaying of Ladder: The swaying ladder symbolizes the difficulties and hurdles that men have to undergo during their time in this world.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Two Lady Rams | A Short Story by Mulk Raj Anand | Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mulk Raj Anand was known for his ability to express and depict the problems faced by common Indians under the burden of the colonial system in a tragic and heart-wrenching manner. However, he knew that the same could be done in a humorous, sarcastic manner too. The Two Lady Rams is one such short humorous story in which Anand excellently targeted some of the societal ills along with the oppressive nature of the British government that had nothing to do with the welfare of Indians but their only motive was to exploit the colony by hook or crook.

Summary and Analysis of The Two Lady Rams

The story is about Lala Jhinda Ram, a contractor of British India. Lalla Jhinda Ram practices dishonesty in his profession. He is a master in forgery and thus, is used by the foreign masters for deception, exploitation, and domination over native people as he cooperates with the white masters in corruption. However, the government cannot let Jhinda Ram and other people like him realize that they are being used as a tool to rob their nation and people. The British government achieves this by conferring meaningless titles and awards to the native Indians helping them in their goals. Lala Jhinda Ram has also attained such a meaningless title of knighthood and a celebratory party is arranged for him. The governor sends him an official invitation addressing him as Sir Lala Jhinda Ram and Lady Ram to the party. Sir Lala Jhinda Ram is very excited. He feels a sudden increase in worth as now he is almost equal to the English officers, his masters. However, this invitation creates a familial problem for Lala Jhinda Ram.

Mulk Raj Anand elaborates on this familial problem of Sir Lala Jhinda Ram in his story to explain the fraudulence of the knighthood that Lala Jhinda Ram attains. He becomes a ‘Sir’ not for his bravery, or skills in arts or crafts. He becomes a Sir for his expertise in corruption that helps the British government. Like many other rich Indians, Lala Jhinda Ram is too influenced by the British and tries to mimic their ways in his life while ridiculing his own roots and traditions. These people considered the British as superiors and hence, the desire for freedom never touched their hearts. Lala Jhinda Ram’s house is built in the famous Purdah style and mimics any ordinary British bungalow, with a verandah decorated by palm trees and hanging plants, leading through a narrow hall into a large living room. Like other rich Indians of British India, Jhinda Ram always seeks to copy the language, culture, and society of the colonizer, but in doing so, he often ignores his root and his identity.

The British government recently abolished polygamy for Hindus though maintained the Mitakshara Law according to which anyone who fails to have a child with his first wife, can marry multiple times until the birth of a child. Lala Jhinda Ram’s first wife Sukhi belonged to a rich family. She is beautiful too. She brought a huge dowry of 1 lakh for Lala Jhinda Ram. Obviously, she holds a financial worth in his life and she administers it by trying to control Jhinda Ram as a dominant wife. But Jhinda Ram is an expert trickster. As Sukhi fails to conceive a baby, he declares her infertile. Jhinda Ram then marries Shakuntala, a poor girl, to attain a baby. Shakuntala is very beautiful and young. She marries Jhinda Ram to attain financial stability. She too is dominant and tries to control Jhinda Ram as per her wishes through her beauty and youth. Thus he peacefully manages his both wives by dividing his house into two separate wings, one for each wife to manage. He used to sleep with each of his wives on alternate days and showered both with equal attention. While Lala Jhinda Ram himself treated his both wives justly, the British government that carved the Mitakshara Law doesn’t care if all the wives of a man get equal status and rights or not.

When Jhinda Ram gets the invitation for the celebratory part of his knighthood, he initially thinks to take Shakuntala, with whom he is romantically involved, to the party. However, one of his servants informed Sukhi about the garden party. She confronts Lala Jhinda Ram and declares that being the first wife, she will accompany him to the party. When Jhinda Ram meets Shakuntala, she insists that he should take her to the party instead. This creates a problem for Jhinda Ram. It is a huge confusion because the invitation card clearly states Sir Jhinda Ram and Lady Ram. But which of his two wives has been invited is not clear. He decides to meet the governor or A.D.C. to clarify this. He could think so because now, he is one of the Sirs, he is knighted. When he calls the A.D.C, who is busy preparing for the party and expresses his desire to meet the governor, he thinks that Lala Jhinda Ram has already given the share or commission from the shady negotiations to the governor, also, there is no new deal coming to the fore. Thus, he feels no need for the Governor to offer any time to Lala Jhinda Ram and he ignores his call. Lala Jhinda Ram is desperate to meet the Governor to get a solution to his problem. He tries to talk to A.D.C. again but fails. His newly attained knighthood is meaningless. He knows that he cannot directly meet the Governor as the quota of commission for the year has been submitted and there is no new deal for his business. So he decides to disguise himself as a manager of cutlery and meet the Governor with the fresh proposal for commission. Lala Jhinda Ram knows that the English officers will allow him to meet the Governor if he shows promise of extra commission. However, he fails to meet the Governor as he is taking a nap at that time. Lala Jhinda Ram has no time to wait as he has to attend the party in the evening with one of his wives. In his pensive mood, he gets a solution from his driver. The driver says that the Governor may not meet him, but the Governor cannot stop him from taking both his wives to the party. Sir Lala Jhinda Ram smiles at this. He sends a message to each of his wives separately to get ready for the party, while he goes to his workplace to mend some papers. At his office, he practices his expertise in forgery and cleverly changes the address on his invitation card from “Sir Lala Jhinda Ram and Lady Ram” to Sir Lala Jhinda Ram and Two Lady Rams.” Lala Jhinda Ram is so confident of his forgery skills that even if someone questions him why he brought both his wives to the party, he would show them the card. After all, he has been awarded the knighthood for forgery. He is confident about managing Sukhi and Shakuntala too to his solution as he is an expert in deception.

In the evening, right before the party, he reaches home and as both Sukhi and Shakuntala are ready, he takes them to the party. Sukhi and Shakuntala aren’t happy about this but they do accept it because it hurts the ego of none of them. At the party, Sir Lala Jhinda Ram introduces both his wives as The Two Lady Rams and both are equally acknowledged and praised for their beautiful saris. The title also suggests that despite being dominant women, both Sukhi and Shakuntala are dependent on Sir Lala Jhinda Ram for recognition as they have no individual identity of their own.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected to the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Oroonoko: Or the Royal Slave by Aphra Behn | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Oroonoko was a short novella, a work of prose fiction by Aphra Behn that she wrote in 1688, that is, 31 years before Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. On many accounts, Behn’s Oroonoko can be termed the first English novel that proved to be her best and most popular work. It is a romantic tragedy. Oroonoko is a story of an unfortunate prince, who not only loses his kingdom, but also his wife, and his life.

The protagonist of the prose-fiction is a black African prince who is deceived and enslaved by a British trader. This makes Oroonoko not only the first novel but also the first fiction that described a black African man as the protagonist. The novel shows all the African slaves sympathetically and is considered the earliest protest against slavery.

Characters of Oroonoko: The Royal Slave

Oroonoko is an African prince of Coramantien. He is deceived and enslaved by a British slave trader and brought to Surinam, where in time he leads a slave revolt and then dies. As a slave, he is named Caesar. Aboan is Oroonoko’s true friend in Coramantien. Imoinda is the daughter of the general of Coramantien who sacrifices his life while protecting Oroonoko. Oroonoko falls in love with her. Imoinda is also enslaved and is named Clemene as a slave. Onahal is one of the many wives of the King who tries to help Oroonoko. The narrator is a young English woman based on Aphra Behn herself. Her father was going to be the new lieutenant-general of the Suriname colony but he dies on the voyage from illness. Being a woman, the narrator is helpless and powerless much like the slaves with no say against what she finds wrong in Surinam. Trefry is the overseer of Parham Plantation where Oroonoko is enslaved and kept. He is friendly towards Oroonoko and attempts to free him and return him to Africa. Tuscan is another Suriname slave who first helps Oroonoko in raising the revolt but then betrays him for his own profit. Willoughy is the lord governor of Surinam, who owns Perham plantation and never arrives to free Oroonoko. Byam is the historical deputy governor of Surinam who betrays Oroonoko by having him whipped and put to death.

Summary of Oroonoko:

The novel is written in the first-person and third-person narrative in parts. The narrator leaves London and moves to Suriname with her father and family as her father is being appointed as the new lieutenant-governor of the Suriname colony in America. However, her father dies of an illness during the voyage. The narrator and her family are kept in the finest house on the Parham plantation. She then starts learning about the people in the colony and knows more about slavery and slaves. Then she begins the story of one of her favorite slaves that she met in Suriname. His name is Oroonoko whom everyone knows as Caesar in Suriname.

The King of Coramantien is over 100 years old and has many wives. All of his sons died in battles and the only heir he has is Oroonoko, his grandchild who is a trained soldier and at the age of 17, becomes the captain of his army. Oroonoko is not just a great warrior, he is a man of arts too. During his meets with English and French traders, he learns English and French. During a war, the general sacrifices his life to save Oroonoko as he takes the arrow aimed at him. After his general’s death, Oroonoko takes the responsibility for the general in grief. Oroonoko decides to meet the family of the general to offer them condolences and the Trophies of his victories. Imoinda is the only surviving daughter of the general. When Oroonoko meets her, she is impressed by his humility. Oroonoko proposes marriage to her which she accepts. The King hears about the beautiful daughter of the late general who is now an orphan. He feels lust for her. While the King tries to control his lust as he knows Oroonoko loves Imoinda, he fails to quench his temptation and sends a royal veil to Imoinda which forces her to be his wife and join his Otan (harem). Imoinda unwillingly accepts her fate. Oroonoko is heartbroken but his friend Aboan consoles him and says that the King is too old and will die soon and then, he can marry Imoinda. Onahal, one of the favorite queens of the King is approached by Oroonoko with a request for help in meeting Imoinda. Onahal arranges a meeting of him with Imoinda in the Otan. As Oroonoko reunites with Imoinda, they consummate their marriage. While Oroonoko is making love, the King arrives in his Otan and catches Oroonoko taking the virginity of Imoinda. Oroonoko soon flees from Otan while the king punishes Imoinda and Onahal by selling them in slavery to Englishmen. Later on, the king feels guilty about his action. When Oroonoko questions him about Imoinda, he says that Imoinda committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being sold as a slave. Oroonoko is in great grief but Aboan manages to raise his morale again.

Oroonoko goes to another tribal war and after returning, receives an invitation from an English trader on his ship. When Oroonoko and his men visit the ship, the English trader deceives them by giving them doctored alcohol to drink. As all of them get unconscious, he shackles them and takes them to his ship to sell as slaves. The ship reaches Suriname where Oroonoko is sold to Trefry, the overseer of Parham Plantation. Trefry is impressed by the looks and build of Oroonoko and soon he learns that Oroonoko is well-versed in English and French. He befriends him. At the plantation, Oroonoko meets the narrator who is also surprised by Oroonoko’s ease with English. Oroonoko shares his ordeal with Trefry and the narrator. They promise to request the lord governor Willoughy to free the prince.

Oroonoko is certainly of higher social status and superior education than any other slaves on the Plantation and soon he gains the respect of all the slaves. He is never sent to work as a laborer and is fondly named as Caesar by Trefry. One day, While walking with Trefry, Caesar meets Imoinda who has been named Clemene in Suriname. She is working as a slave on Parham’s plantation. Oroonoko recognizes her and embraces her as his wife. They start living as a married couple in one of the slave’s cottages on the plantation. Soon Imoinda gets pregnant.

Oroonoko feels that it is a must for him to get rid of his slavery before his child takes birth as he won't wish his child to be termed as a slave’s child. Trefry writes again to Willoughy but doesn’t receive any response. Oroonoko decides to rebel against the enslavers. Tuscan, another slave on the plantation helps him gather the African men who accept him as their leader. Soon begins an uprising against the English establishment. Oroonoko and his followers decide to run away on the eve of Sunday when all Englishmen are drunk. They plan to make another settlement near the shore and manage to capture a ship through which they may return to Africa.

Deputy governor Byam is given the charge of suppressing the rebellion. His army encircles the rebels. He manages to have a talk with Tuscan and wins his confidence. He sends a message to Oroonoko to accept all his demands if the rebels come to accept the terms of peace. Byam further promises amnesty to all the slaves and that he will ensure that Oroonoko and his family are freed and returned to Africa. Oroonoko agrees to surrender. However, Byam orders the arrest of Oroonoko as soon as he surrenders and orders Tuscan and other men of Oroonoko to whip their leader brutally if they have to gain amnesty. Tuscan willingly beats Oroonoko, tied to a post, and then they pour pepper on his wounds.

Oroonoko succeeds in rescuing himself and running away. He meets Imoinda in the woods and tells her that there is no way to freedom except death. He says that his only desire is to take revenge against Byam who deceived him and ridiculed him in front of his men. Imoinda accepts the situation. She doesn't wish to give birth to a child as a slave and requests Oroonoko to kill her by his own hands and then he will be free to take his revenge against Byam. Oroonoko accepts and cuts the throat of Imoinda, his dear wife. He plans to kill Byam afterward but he is too grief-stricken after murdering Imoinda and his own child in her womb. He keeps weeping for seven days alongside the dead body of Imoinda. He is too weak now and realizes that he cannot take revenge. Meanwhile, Byam’s soldiers notice the foul smell while pursuing Oroonoko. As they inspect, they find him. As they prod him, Oroonoko stands stoically smoking his pipe while they chop off his nose, ears, and one leg. Then he falls down dead, and they quarter his body before disposing of it. The executioners cut Caesar's body into quarters and send the body parts to other plantations in Suriname.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Alison’s House by Susan Glaspell | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Susan Glaspell was one of the most appreciated playwrights of modern American literature who won the Pulitzer prize for her drama Alison’s House in the year 1931. The play was first performed on December 1, 1930. The hundredth anniversary of the birthday of Emily Dickinson was to be celebrated on the 10th of December 1930 and Alison’s House was a great tribute by Susan Glaspell to the extraordinary American poet. The play is set on the last day of 1899 as the nineteenth century is coming to a close and a new, more materialistic world is emerging. The play is loosely based on the life of Emily Dickinson. Initially, Susan Glaspell wished to use Emily’s name for her play but she was denied permission for the use of Dickinson’s name and work by the late poet’s heirs. The Dickinson family prohibited Susan to use Emily’s name or to quote her poetry. As a result, Susan created a fictional Stanhope family and utilized poetry from Ralph Waldo Emerson, whom Dickinson admired.

Susan Glaspell was an early feminist writer who carved and shaped American feminism. To cultivate and defend one’s freedom in a man’s world was a continual theme for her that she continued to pursue in her dramas and writings. Obviously, Susan took the feministic point of view out of Emily Dickinson’s life to strengthen her call for early 20th-century feminist politics. The other question raised through this drama was how the lives of artists become fodder for a voyeuristic public. The drama shows how the competing demands of celebrity and privacy have and have not shifted in the 93 years between its first performance and today.

Characters of Alison’s House

Alison Stanhope is the titular character of the play who never appears on the stage because Alison Stanhope died 18 years before the day depicted in the play. Alison Stanhope was the country’s foremost poet. The character is based on Emily Dickinson. Many mysteries about Alison Stanhope have been kept secret by her siblings for the sake of her privacy and family reputation. John Stanhope is the elder brother of Alison who is 63 years old. John Stanhope wishes to sell the house but he is worried about his and Alison’s elder sister Agatha, who lives in the house alone with the housekeeper, Jennie. Ann Leslie is the family secretary. Richard Howels is a prying reporter for the Chicago Record-Herald who visits the house to find out some story of the famous dead poet. Ted is John’s youngest son who was two years old when Alison died. Eben is the elder brother of Ted and Louise is Eben’s wife. Elsa Stanhope is John Stanhope’s daughter and sister of Ted and Eben. Bill is the man whom Elsa loves.

Summary of Alison’s House

Alison’s House is a 3-Act play that begins in the library of Stanhope’s home on the last eve of 1899. John Stanhope is considering the option of selling this old house on the banks of the Mississippi where he spent his childhood days with his elder sister Agatha and younger sister Alison Stanhope. Alison died 18 years ago and now Agatha lives here alone with the housekeeper Jennie who takes care of her. John’s elder son Eben is a practicing lawyer who wishes to become a poet like his late aunt Alison. His wife Louise is a housewife. Ted is his younger brother who is being forced by John to pursue his studies to become a lawyer but he is not interested. Elsa Stanhope is the only daughter of John but he doesn’t talk to her much.

Ann Leslie is a young woman who is the secretary of John’s family and fortune. She is cataloging and safekeeping the books of Alison. The whole family got together to celebrate the upcoming new year, and the new 20th century. John and Ann Leslie talk about her late mother whom John once loved but never revealed his love for her because he was already a married man and a father. He cares for Ann like his own daughter, while he is angry with Elsa, his daughter.

While John is determined to sell the house to Mr. and Mrs. Hodge, the potential buyers, he is worried about Agatha who never left this house and doesn’t wish to leave it before her death. Agatha is not happy about John’s decision to sell the house as she feels she and Alison are being kicked out of their house. She feels Alison’s soul still linger in the house.

Eben is not happy as a lawyer and wishes to take a leave and try as a professional writer and poet. He is leading an unhappy married life with Louise who doesn’t appreciate his poetic mind and is more materialistic. Louise doesn’t like the fact that Elsa has also joined them for the celebrations of the new year as she doesn’t like her at all. She claims that Elsa is just like her late aunt Alison. Elsa fell in love with a married man and eloped with him. That married man is Bill, the husband of one of Louise’s close friends. Louise complains to Eben that such adultery is in their blood as Alison also fell in love with a married man and tried to run away with him but her brother stopped her from doing so. John failed to stop Elsa and thus, he is angry with his daughter.

On the eve of the last day of 1899, a reporter Richard Howels arrives at Stanhope’s house in hope of finding some interesting material to write a story about Alison Stanhope. He tries hard to pry at the family members to gather some information. Louise is not comfortable with his presence. She worries that he will stir up gossip and stories about Alison’s past and which will ruin the family’s reputation further and will harm her husband’s and children’s present.

There is a room in the house that always remain locked. It is Alison’s room. Agatha keeps a guard in the room to protect her memories and reputation. While all the family members are on the ground floor, Jennie calls for help as she observes smoke coming out of Alison’s room. John and Eben run upwards and see Agatha trying to burn some papers. However, she is hesitant to throw the papers in the fire as if she is in two minds. They put an end to the fire.

John and Ann talk about Agatha and wonder what she tried to burn and what was in those papers that Agatha denied sharing with anyone. Knowles wonders if the family found any other papers left by Alison. John strictly tells him to go away and he takes his permission to visit the house once more at the appropriate time. Before he goes, he offers Ann a paper with a poem written by him.

Mr. and Mrs. Hodge arrive at Stanhope's house to finalize the deal. Mr. Hodge says that they are planning to paint it bright yellow, cut up the big rooms to make smaller ones, and make it a home for summer boarders. The deal is finalized as John decides to sell the house to Mr. Hodge.

The family members all gather in the library and John talks about his dead mother and sister. Ted tries to look for some books by Alison as he is writing a paper for his University to get better grades as his professor is a huge fan of Alison. He declares that he doesn’t want to become a lawyer and would join the rubber tire business. Eben says that he is planning to take a leave for a year and will work on his poetry. John doesn’t approve of their ideas. Louise announces that she cannot live with Elsa under the same roof but Eben takes Elsa’s side. John interrupts Eben and says that he is angry at Elsa because unlike her, he and Alison were responsible and didn’t run off with the people they fell in love with.

Richard Howels returns at the same time and asks Ann to go for a walk with him. Ann looks towards John for permission and he nods to give his approval. As Ann and Richard go away, John starts reading some poems of Alison. They hear the footsteps of Agatha coming downstairs. Agatha comes and offers a leather portfolio to Elsa and says that it is a gift for Elsa from her and Alison and soon she dies.

After some time, all gather again. Ann and Elsa talk about their love life and Elsa informs how happy she is with Bill. Ann says that Richard has proposed to her and she has accepted his marriage proposal. Eben talks about his childhood memories with Elsa at the old house. Elsa then decides to open the portfolio given to her by Agatha. It contains a huge amount of unpublished poems by Alison. John wants to burn them while Ted wants to sell them. Eben persuades his father to let Elsa have her right to the poems. Stanhope finally agrees to let Elsa keep the gift from Alison’s century to the people of Elsa’s century as the clock strikes 12 O’Clock midnight. Stanhope embraces Elsa, forgiving her as the play ends.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Lal Singh Trilogy by Mulk Raj Anand | The Village, Across The Black Waters, The Sword and The Sickle

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mulk Raj Anand published The Village in the year 1939 and its sequel, Across the Black Waters, was published later in the same year. The two novels describe the life and journey of Lal Singh, or Lalu as a nonchalant son of a well-to-do farmer from the village of Nandpur in Punjab to the battlegrounds of World War I. The third part of Lalu’s trilogy was The Sword and the Sickle which was published in 1942. As Lal Singh returns alive from Europe, he jumps into the freedom struggle of India as a common peasant and faces the duplicity of political leaders who hardly understand the troubles of poor farmers while trying to use them for their political gains. Mulk Raj Anand was a staunch socialist who often disagreed with Mahatma Gandhi on many issues and openly rebuked and ridiculed Gandhian stance of Non-violence as the solution to every problem faced by Indians. These three novels are about the Indian peasants and the troubles they faced because of imperialist government and social conventions. Lal Singh or Lalu of Mulk Raj Anand represents Everyman of India. Through this Trilogy, Mulk Raj Anand exposes and ridicules the hypocrisy of urbanites, politicians, intellectuals, and imperialists alike while telling a fictional story of the establishment of Bhartiya Kisan Sabha.

Characters And Summary of The Village:

The village is set in the autumn of 1913.

Lal Singh or Lalu is the central character. Like Bakha (Untouchable) or Munnu (Coolie), Lalu is an adolescent kid of age 16 or 17. Unlike Bakha and Munnu, he is not uneducated and downtrodden. He belongs to a middle-class peasantry family trapped in the clutches of the landlord, the moneylender, and the priest, who are the living representatives of a fading, old order. Nihal Singh is his father who, like Gangu (Two Leaves and a Bud) is facing the burden of debt, yet he is stable. Lalu’s elder brother is about to marry while his eldest brother is struggling to pay the loan back to the moneylender. Lalu is a revolutionary kid who dares to challenge the norms and hence, faces troubles at each step. He sees the discrimination between castes and religion but doesn’t approve of it. He freely plays with kids of other castes. One day, when he decides to take some sweets from a Muslim man's shop, he is reprimanded by the priest of the village and he gets a haircut as a punishment. At his elder brother’s engagement, Lalu is falsely accused of molesting a girl and again he is punished as his face is blackened by the villagers and he is made to parade on a donkey. Lalu realizes that he can take no more and decides to run away and escape from the scene to avoid this disgrace. After running away from his family, Lalu faces the same difficulties as faced by Munnu, but unlike Munnu or Gangu, he decides to join the British Army instead of becoming an indentured laborer or coolie. Bakha had no education and was placed lowest in the caste hierarchy, there was no way he could revolt. Munnu was too young and too weak to act against the oppressive system that crushed him. Gangu was too old and fatalistic to rebel. Unlike Bakha, Munnu, or Gangu who raise our pity but fail to win the reader’s praise, Lalu is brave enough to win his battles. He learns that the British government is willing to offer free farmland to soldiers ready to go to Europe and fight for England against the Germans in World War I. He thinks that on returning, he will get his own farmland and will be able to help his family return their debt, and thus, decides to go to fight for the Allied forces. At the village, his family has succumbed to the burden of debt. Most of his kinsmen have lost their small landholdings to the landlord and the moneylender. His eldest brother was charged with murdering the landlord’s son and was hanged. Nihal Singh, who couldn’t bear the loss died of heart failure. The only surviving member of Lalu’s family is his middle brother who was to have married when Lalu left home. He couldn’t bear the ruin and turned ascetic and left the village. Lalu is unaware of all this as he prepares to go to Europe.

Characters and Summary of Across The Black Waters

Across the Black Waters is the only Indian English novel set in the period of World War 1. It is the autumn of 1914 as Lalu reaches Marseilles with his regiment. Lalu and his comrades are from the Himalayas who never came out of India ever before. However, they find a similarity in France. They observe the poor french people living in slums and french women washing their husband’s clothes on the river banks. Like Indian wives, the french women say goodbye to their sons and husbands before they go to war and this offers Lalu a sense of familiarity. Unlike the British rulers, the French people are not discriminating against Hindus and Laly observes that the French people cheer Indian soldiers with shouts of ‘Vivleshindou!’ Indian soldiers are welcomed in French bars and coffee shops with no discrimination and this lets Lalu understand the British apartheid in India. Unlike British memsahibs in India, French women are friendly, open, and respectful. Lalu feels like home. The Indian soldiers wonder ‘where is the war?’

Lalu makes friends with a French soldier Andre and his sister Marie. He finds the Allies are not united and the British armies are discriminated between the angrez sahibs and the Indian sepoys. The sepoys themselves are not unified, there are many disrupted members among them. Soon Lalu learns that the European war is much deadlier than any war the Indian soldiers ever faced. Indian soldiers are sent to war trenches to face the German soldiers. Indian soldiers are mostly bigger than the British soldiers and the trenches were tailor-made for British soldiers. Indian soldiers find the trenches uncomfortably small – just one of how they do not quite fit in. Still, they accept their orders and their fate in this alien war, and ‘smothered any fears they had in a collective effort to prove true to the salt of the Sarkar’. While Indian soldiers face heavy bullet fire from their opponents, they hardly have any meaningful weapons. Two elderly soldiers Uncle Kirpa and Daddy Danoo explain the war laws to Indian soldiers which Lalu understands as ‘the Indian law of chivalry’. In crucial respects,, British and Germans mostly follow the principle of ‘live and let live’. The British officer Owen Sahib is a kind and paternalistic man whom everybody likes. Major Peacock can speak Hindustani but he is discriminatory against Indian soldiers and is less liked. Lalu sees the death of many of his friends on the battlefield and also through suicide. The hardship turns the young Lalu into a mature man. However, he still remains a son of an Indian farmer, and a farmer himself. At the end of the novel, Lalu is captured by the German soldiers and faces extreme torture as the captive soldier.

Characters and Summary of The Sword and The Sickle

The Sword and The Sickle is the last part of the trilogy. Initially, Anand chose the title ‘All Men’s Are Brothers’ for the third part but he changed it to The Sword and The Sickle at the suggestion of George Orwell. The title 'The Sword and Sickle' is taken from a poem by William Blake and represents the struggle of the oppressed against the oppressor.

As the war ends, Lalu is freed by the German army and he returns to India in 1918. He is hopeful of getting the gift of farmland and pension as a reward from the British government but he is ridiculed and dismissed without them. Anand published The Sword and The Sickle in 1942. The broken promise to Lalu, therefore, becomes a warning of what might happen after the end of the Second World War, and the plot of land not given to Lalu becomes a symbol of the land of India. The cruelty of the British government forces many peasants to penury. As a farmer, Lalu understands the plight of farmers and decides to join the Indian Freedom Struggle. Like many others, he is influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s efforts but finds his concept of non-violence unworkable. Lalu meets many leaders but realizes that none of them actually understands the helplessness and issues of poor farmers and can hardly help them. Lalu completely repudiates Gandhi’s view of non-violence and ridicules Gandhi’s idea of bringing Swaraj by wearing Khadi and fasting. He believes that the destiny of Indian peasants is tied to the working force of the world. (All Men are Brothers). Lalu claims, “When the Videshi state goes, there will be a Swadeshi state – a mere change of names and labels. I believe they will use the same police, which now beats them with staves, and the same regulations by which they are put in goals, to suppress those whom they don’t like.”

Lalu opts for another path. He commits himself passionately to the task of organizing the peasants by joining the insurrectionist group led by Count Rampal Singh. This pursuit lands him in prison, but the vision of the revolution still tempts his soul. The organization symbolizes the beginning of Bhartiya Kisan Sabha a revolution in itself. Lalu commits himself completely to the reformation of peasants and attempts for bringing rural reforms from within the community.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the History of Indian English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and regards.

The Rover by Aphra Behn | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Rover was a restoration comedy written by Aphra Behn that was first performed in 1677. It proved to be the most successful drama by Aphra Behn. The play was a revision of Thomas Killigrew’s play Thomaso or The Wanderer. Aphra Behn was praised by John Dryden for this play who said that the play "lacks the manly vitality of Killigrew's play, but shows greater refinement of expression."

The subtitle of The Rover is The Banish’d Cavaliers which is a reference to the exile that the Cavalier forces experienced during the English Interregnum.

Characters of The Rover:

Willmore is the titular character, the Rover who spends most of his days on a ship captained by him. He is a Royalist as it is implied that King Charles II is also present on the ship (during Interregnum). He is a womanizer, an inconstant character who commits to a woman and then moves to the next very soon. The character of Willmore appears to be inspired by John Wilmot, 2^nd Earl of Rochester. He is disloyal to women and he is a hotheaded and rash person. Angelica Bianca is a courtesan, a former mistress of a deceased Spanish general who visits the carnival in Naples to sell herself at a high price of 1000 crowns a month. Don Pedro and Don Antonio both are willing to pay her price but she falls in love with Willmore. When she comes to know that Willmore is cheating on her, she draws her pistol at him to shoot him. Colonel Belvile is an English colonel who falls in love with Florinda who is a Spanish noblewoman and sister of Don Pedro. Belvile is generally calm and genuine. He remains loyal to Florinda who dearly loves him. Despite being a poor exiled foreigner, he wins her love while competing against a wealthy friend of Don Pedro. Don Antonio is the son of the Viceroy of Naples who is a friend of Don Pedro. Pedro engages Florinda with Don Antonio but he is more interested in Angelica Bianca. Blunt is a foolish English countryman with irrational motives and cruel intentions. He is fooled and robbed by Lucetta, a Spanish whore. Hellena is Florinda and Don Pedro’s younger sister. Don Pedro wishes her to join a nunnery. Callis is the governess of Florinda and Hellena. Valeria is a kinswoman of Florinda and Hellena who falls in love with Frederick, a friend of Belvile.

Summary of The Rover; or, The Banish’d Cavaliers

The Rover is a five-act play. In the prologue, a female actress appears and claims that neither established writers nor critics give a fair chance to an unknown new author. But, the established writers who mock the new writers are often bores and plagiarists. She then asks the playwright if she has to say something to the audience to which a voice answers that people come to theatres to have a good laugh at wit and debauchery. The play begins with the introduction of two sisters Florinda and Hellena along with their brother Don Pedro and a cousin Valeria. There is tension between Don Pedro and his sisters as Pedro wishes Florinda to get married to his friend Don Antonio while he wants Hellena to join a nunnery. Florinda doesn’t like Don Antonio, who is the wealthy son of the viceroy of Naples. Rather she is in love with a poor Englishman Belvile. Hellena also wishes to marry an Englishman. Valeria helps them in sneaking out to the carnival to have some fun.

Meanwhile, Belvile, Fredrick, and Blunt are preparing to visit the carnival. They meet Willmore, a fellow Englishman and a captain of a ship. Together they go to the carnival where they see Florinda, Hellena, and Valeria disguised as gypsies. Belvile fails to recognize Florinda while Hellena flirts with Willmore. However, this gypsy girl gives a letter to Belvile with a message to meet Florinda at ten that night and elope with her. Blunt gains the attention of a local whore Lucetta and leaves with her. Florinda, Valeria, and Hellena notice Don Pedro coming in the same direction and they run away.

The English Cavaliers inspect the carnival and soon are attracted by a poster of Angelica Bianca who is charging 1000 crowns a month for living together. Willmore and Frederick claim that the price is genuine to be with her, but they are penniless. Blunt returns and claims that he is in love while it is obvious that he is being duped. Angelica believes that she will easily get her price and soon she gets two masked willing visitors. One of them is Don Pedro and the other is Don Antonio but none of them could recognize the other. Antonio sees the poster of Angelica and mumbles if it is possible for him to sleep with Angelica while still marrying Florinda who is also beautiful. As Don Pedro listens to his sister’s name from the masked competitor, he recognizes him as Antonio and this angers him as it is an insult to his sister. He starts quarreling with Antonio and challenges him to a duel the next day. Meanwhile, Willmore tries to steal a smaller portrait of Angelica. Angelica catches him and calls him inside her tent. Willmore goes in and tells her to reduce her price. He tries to sleep with her free of cost. Angelica is impressed by his witty attitude and feels she is in love with him. She decides to sleep with him while her servant comments that love brings ruin to all prostitutes.

Hellena confides to Florinda that she found Willmore pretty attractive. Florinda is shocked at Hellena’s lack of virtue as she is supposed to join a nunnery. Hellena decides to pursue the Cavaliers to know more about Willmore and eavesdrop on them. Willmore meets the Cavaliers and brags about how he succeeded in sleeping with Angelica for free. This angers Hellena and she confronts Willmore. Willmore turns his attention towards Hellena and promises that he will not see Angelica ever again. Blunt decides o go to meet Lucetta. Valeria finds Frederick attractive and starts flirting with him. Florinda also tries to flirt with Belvile in her gypsy disguise to check his loyalty but he ignores this stranger girl.

Blunt gets deceived by Lucetta who robs him of everything but his underwear with the help of her servant. Blunt is too angry and vows revenge against all women. At night, Beliville goes to meet Florinda but Willmore reaches before him and in his drunkenness, tries to rape Florinda. Florinda cries for help and Belvile and Don Pedro both reach for her to help. Belvile rages Willmore to fight who is too drunk and refuses to fight and goes away while Don Pedro takes Florinda to safety. Willmore reaches Angelica’s room again where Don Antonio is trying to woo her. Willmore and Antonio engage in an argument and Willmore draws his sword and attacks Antonio, wounding him. People cry that Antonio has been killed and soldiers rush toward him while Willmore runs away. Belvile, who was pursuing Willmore to fight him is arrested by soldiers for attacking Antonio. As Antonio’s right arm is wounded, he cannot fight the duel the next day. He asks Belvile to fight in his place in return for freedom. Belvile despises Antonio but agrees to fight. The next day, Belvile disguises himself as Antonio and engages in a duel with Pedro. He easily defeats Pedro and as he is about to kill him, Florinda comes forward and begs for her brother’s life. Belvile stops and drops his sword at her feet. Don Pedro still believes that he was defeated by Antonio and he claims that Antonio is the perfect match for Florinda and they should marry right now. However, Willmore comes again and removes the disguise of Belvile and spoils the good luck.

Angelica confronts Willmore about Hellena while Hellena visits Angelica’s room in a boy’s disguise. She sees Angelica arguing with Willmore and tells a lie that Willmore is in a relationship with a fictional noblewoman. Willmore recognizes Hellena and abuses her for telling lies and Hellena runs away. Angelica tells Willmore to remain away from that girl but she doesn’t trust him anymore and decides to take revenge if he proves disloyal. Meanwhile, Florinda is in the safe custody of Calis, the governess. Valeria helps her in getting out. Both of them go to the Cavaliers' rooms where they find Blunt. They ask him to shelter them and show him their ring to prove that they are noble women. Blunt locks them and invites Frederick to rape Florinda and Valeria. Initially, Frederick is willing but soon he surmises that one of the girls is the love of his friend Belvile and informs Belvile that Blunt has kept Florinda captive. Belvile, Frederick, and Don Pedro knock and force Blunt to open the door. Blunt claims that he has a noblewoman as a captive. Belvile knows that she is Florinda but cannot reveal it in front of Pedro. Valeria manages to free herself and distracts Pedro in another direction. Soon Belvile forces the door open and Florinda is freed. She forgives Blunt and goes away with Belvile to marry him. Meanwhile, Valeria also proposes to Frederick who agrees and goes away with her. Willmore is singled out. Soon Angelica confronts him with her pistol and claims that he has been disloyal to which he agrees and says that he is unable to remain loyal. Angelica is sad at her loss but forgives Willmore and goes away. Hellena appears and Willmore tries to seduce her to sleep with him but she remains confident and asks him to marry her first. Willmore accepts defeat and agrees to marry Hellena who asks Don Pedro for his wishes. Don Pedro is not happy about it but agrees reluctantly and the play ends. In the epilogue, the actresses mock the audience and criticize the leaders who want to censor the plays again and claim that these plays are the true friends of common poor folk as they offer them a reason to laugh.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Trifles by Susan Glaspell | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Susan Glaspell was an American playwright, novelist, short story writer, journalist, and actress. She took birth on July 1, 1876, and died on July 28, 948. She married George Cram Cook who was a drama producer, playwright, novelist, and poet in 1913. Along with George Cram Cook, Susan Glaspell established the Provincetown Players on Cape Cod which was considered the first modern American theatre company independent of Broadway. Glaspell joined the feminist group Heterodoxy founded by Merry Janie Howe whose other members included Emma Goldman, Charlotte Perkins Gillman, Ida Rauh, Alice Kimball, Alison Turnbull Hopkins, Doris Stevens, and Paula Jakobi. Heterodoxy was a major important group that offered a platform for Americans not only to debate the basic women’s rights of suffrage and women’s club but also the other aspects of feminine individuality and freedom. Heterodites were considered important for the origins of American feminism. Glaspell’s work offers an insight into early feministic ideas at a time when American women were still struggling for the right to suffrage and women were not allowed to be members of any jury considering a criminal case.

In 1914, Susan Glaspell co-wrote a drama titled Suppressed Desire along with George Cram Cook that was based on Freudian psychological principles. George Cram died in 1924 and after that, Susan started working as a journalist for Des Moines Daily Newspaper in Iowa. She covered the murder case of John Hossack whose wife informed the police that an unknown person murdered her husband with an axe at night while she was sleeping beside him. Hossack’s wife Margaret was arrested for his murder. Initially, Susan Glaspell strictly wrote against Margaret, depicting her as the possible murderer. However, after visiting Hossack’s house, her attitude turned soft towards Margaret and she wrote many articles describing Margaret as a fine woman, mother, and lady unable to commit such a heinous crime. Later on, she resigned from her job and decided to begin her career as a fiction writer. In 1916, her first play solely written by her was performed by the Provincetown Players and it was titled Trifles. Trifles is a one-act play that was loosely based on Susan’s experience of the John Hossack murder case. Women were not supposed to be a part of any jury listening to a criminal case. Because of this aspect, a truly fair trial by a jury of one's peers, as promised by the American Constitution, was impossible for a female defendant. Susan Glaspell published this drama Trifle as a short story titled A Jury By Her Peers to highlight the discrepancy between the law and the Constitution.

Characters of Trifles

George Henderson is the county attorney with the charge of investigating the case of John Wright’s murder and will probably act as the prosecution advocate in case of a trial. He is a young and disciplined professional with a typical male attitude who won’t give too much importance to the female interest. Henry Peters is the local sheriff assisting George Henderson in the investigation of John Wright’s murder. He is a dominant married man who keeps his wife under his control, not allowing any individual identity of her except as his wife. Thus, his wife is known as Mrs. Peters, with no first name ever mentioned throughout the play. Mrs. Peters accompanies Henry Peters to Wright’s house for investigation because John Wright’s wife has been imprisoned for her husband’s murder and she demanded a change of clothes, a shawl, and a pleated apron that Mrs. Peters could easily gather from her house. Lewis Hale is the neighbor of the late John Wright who visited Wright’s house to meet him but was informed by his wife that he had been strangled to death while she was sleeping. He informs the local sheriff about the murder. He is also a dominant married man who says "Women are used to worrying about trifles." Mrs. Hale is the wife of Lewis Hale. Like Mrs. Peters, her first name is never revealed in the play as her own identity means little or nothing in the men’s world that recognizes her as the wife of Mr. Hale. She knew John Wright’s wife even before their marriage. She remembers how bubbly, enthusiastic, and optimistic she used to be. She complains about how lonely, troubled and cynical she turned after her marriage and regrets not having come to visit Mrs. Wright to alleviate her cheerless life. John Wright was a farmer, commonly considered a good dutiful man. However, he was a strict husband with no consideration for his wife. He wouldn’t allow his wife to mingle with neighbors or sing. For him, his wife had no right as an individual as she existed only as his wife. Mrs. Minnie Wright is the suspected murderer of her husband John Wright. She is the only woman whose first name is mentioned in the play, indicating that she somehow struggled and maintained her individual identity.

Summary of Trifles

Lewis Hale was going to the town to sell his sack of potatoes when he thought of asking John Wright, his neighbor if he would like to acquire a telephone at his farmhouse. However, when he entered Wright’s house, he saw Mrs. Minnie Wright sitting on her rocking chair in a disheveled and disturbed manner. She informed him that John Wright is lying dead on his bed with a rope around his neck. She says that some unknown person strangled him while he was asleep and she didn’t notice it because she “sleeps sound.” Lewis Wright informs the local sheriff Henry Peters and Minnie is arrested as a suspect in John Wright’s murder. Later on, county attorney George Anderson visits Wright’s house for investigation. Henry Peters accompanies him along with Lewis Hale as he is the first witness who informed the police about the murder. Lewis Hale says that though John Wright was a good dutiful man, he was a bit rough towards his wife. However, Henderson stops him from speaking about Mr. Wright’s roughness and non-consideration of his wife. Along with the three men, two women, Mrs. Peters, wife of the sheriff, and Mrs. Hale, wife of Lewis Hale also accompany them at the crime scene to collect some essential items (a change of clothes, a shawl, and a pleated apron) demanded by Mrs. Minnie Wright who has been arrested.

Henderson suggests that the men should investigate the house for some vital clues. Sheriff Peters says that they shouldn’t waste their time searching the room where Lewis Hale found Minnie as according to him, there is “nothing here but kitchen things.” Obviously, he considers women’s work of little or no importance. The other men agree. However, Mrs. Hale doesn’t like their insinuation. Mrs. Peters apologizes for her husband’s statement by claiming that he is merely doing his duty. The men decide to search the bedroom and the barn. As they go through the kitchen, Henderson opens up a cupboard and sees preserves that have frozen and broken their jars. Mrs. Peters remarks that Mrs. Wright was correct to worry about and anticipate this happening when the gas fire went out, and Henry sarcastically marvels at Mrs. Wright’s frivolity amid facing a murder charge. George replies, “Well, women are used to worrying over trifles”. Yet, it suggests how attentive and dutiful Minnie is for her domestic work, also, the sign was for women. The men notice that things are not properly arranged in the bedroom and the barn and Henderson comments that Mrs. Minnie Wright isn’t very good at housekeeping skills. Mrs. Hale defends Minnie saying that she worked at the farm too and farms require a lot of work. She further says that John Wright had no homemaking instinct and suggests that homemaking instinct is one's ability to make a home warm and comforting emotionally.

Henry Peters then suggests that they should investigate the bedroom upstairs while the women may collect the essentials for Mrs. Minnie Wright.

As the women are alone, they start talking about Mrs. Minnie Wright while checking her clothes which appear to be old, dull, and shabby. Mrs. Hale sighs and says that before marriage, Minnie used to wear nice, attractive, and pretty clothes. She suggests that John Wright was a cruel dominant man who changed Minnie completely and ruined her inner self. He forced her to wear dull clothes and depress her individual beauty. Mrs. Peters listens to her carefully and feels the pain of Minnie as her own situation is no different than hers. The two women then further notice any such signs suggesting the unhappy and disturbed condition of Minnie as they see the bread left out to get stale, the table only half-cleaned, and a quilt with crooked, erratic stitching that reflects Minnie’s mental state.

Mrs. Hale says that her husband is confounded that there was a gun in the house that went unused during the murder. Mrs. Peters remarks that George needs “a motive; something to show anger or—sudden feeling” Now the women know that situations weren’t great between the couple and Minnie was obviously the victim of her dominant sadistic husband.

Soon they find out the most important clue, a broken birdcage. John broke that cage. Mrs. Hales says that Minnie had a canary as her pet, her only friend in her lonely life. She regrets that she did not come by to see Mrs. Wright more often to reduce her depression and loneliness. This bird was symbolic of Minnie herself, who used to sing in the town’s choir before she married. Looking further, they find a sewing box of Minnie and as they open it, they see the dead canary. John killed her loving pet, and Minnie had revenge to take. Mrs. Peters remembers how she was willing to kill the boy who once killed her pet cat during her childhood. The two women keep mum about it and decide to hide the evidence they have found as to Minnie’s motive. Unsurprisingly, the men take no notice, thinking of these items as mere “trifles.”

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.