Mending Wall by Robert Frost | Themes, Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mending Wall was the opening poem of the second poetry collection of Robert Frost titled North of Boston which was published in the year 1914. It is one of the most anthologized and analyzed poems in modern literature. Most of Frost’s poetry is principally about the rural life and landscape of New England. Mending Walls is a poem describing the discussion between two neighbors. The poet is a New England farmer who contacts his neighbor during the spring season to repair the stone wall between their farms. As they start mending the wall the poet and his neighbor engage in a discussion. The poet wonders if they need any such wall and asks "where it is we do not need the wall"? The poet mentions that nature doesn’t like the wall. The poet is of the view that they don’t need a wall but the neighbor is adamant and suggests "Good fences make good neighbors".

Themes of Mending Wall

The poem can be seen in many ways. Through the wall, the poet suggests how individuals create barriers to isolate themselves from others. It also gives impetus to the debate of nationalism and globalization as the wall can be the boundary between two nations. Thus, the poet stresses the idea of the free market.

The neighbor doesn’t agree with the poet and this dispute shows the frequent clash of modernity and traditionalism. In this sense, the poem becomes an argument of a generation where the youth is trying to throw away the age-old traditions while the older generation is trying to do anything to maintain the sanctity of traditions. The neighbor says twice "Good fences make good neighbors" (Lines 27, and 46). This is a strong message. The wall appears to separate the two neighbors but in reality, it brings them close. The wall is not only a physical reality, but it is an ideal sphere of one’s identity. The wall suggests that every individual has got right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and those rights must be respected and maintained. In a relationship, if there are limits to be respected, the relationship goes strong as the limits avoid oppression and humiliation of one by the other.

The poet also suggests that nature doesn’t like the wall between his and his neighbor’s farm and hence it continues to fall again and again. He attacks the neighbor using the word “savage” as he wants to shy away from others around him. However, it is just the opposite. Civilization is the progress toward a society of privacy. The savage’s whole existence is public, ruled by the laws of his tribe. Civilization is the process of setting man free from men. (Ayn Rand). Our clothes and dresses are also a form of the wall separating us from others. Giving us a sense of privacy against nakedness. Animals feel no shyness. The civilized, and intelligent people seek privacy, not the savages.

Structure of Mending Wall

The poem is a dramatic narrative written in blank verse. Iambic pentameter appears great as it offers a sense of speech and debate within the poem. The poem contains a single stanza of 46 lines without any end rhymes or rhyming patterns. However, the poet used assonance at end-words (wall, hill, balls, wall, and well sun, thing, stone, mean, line, and again or game, them, and him twice). Consonance has also been used “And set the wall between us once again”, (sound of /t and /n). Symbolism has been used as, “fence” to symbolize the ‘gap’ that one should maintain to establish long-lasting relationships and maintain privacy. “Nature” symbolizes the reunion of the two as the speaker meets his neighbor every year in spring to fix the fence. Frost also used metaphor and imagery in this poem. “And some are loaves and some so nearly balls”, “He is all pine and I am apple orchard” and “Not of woods only and the shade of trees.”

Summary of Mending Wall by Robert Frost

Lines 1 – 4:
Something there is that doesn’t love a wall,
That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it,
And spills the upper boulders in the sun,
And makes gaps even two can pass abreast.

The poet begins by mentioning that there is ‘something’ mysterious that doesn’t like the wall between the two farms. The poet uses ‘something’ to clarify that it is not a work of humans, indicating nature. He speculates that the water beneath the ground freezes during the winter and swells. This forces an upward thrust that creates cracks in the wall. As the spring comes, the sun heats up and the cracks widen so much that two people can pass through it side by side and walk in the same direction.

Lines 5 – 11:
The work of hunters is another thing:
I have come after them and made repair
Where they have left not one stone on a stone,
But they would have the rabbit out of hiding,
To please the yelping dogs. The gaps I mean,
No one has seen them made or heard them made,
But at spring mending-time we find them there.

In these lines, the poet says that the hunters are another challenge to the wall as the wall restricts the otherwise wider spread of the hunting ground. During the hunting season, the hunters come and damage the wall during their sports and never bother to repair it again. The poet says that he has been witness to the hunters' acts when they make holes in the wall for their dogs to catch rabbits. The hunters believe that no one is watching them over and hence, they do not sense the responsibility of repairing the wall before leaving. But the poet caught them doing so as he followed them and then repaired the wall. The poet suggests that it could be the hunters’ act as there are gaps in the wall again.

Lines 12 – 15:
I let my neighbor know beyond the hill;
And on a day we meet to walk the line
And set the wall between us once again.
We keep the wall between us as we go.

In these lines, the poet informs that his neighboring farmer lives on the other side of the hill and every year he informs his neighbor about the damage to the wall. The neighbor and the poet then decide on a day on which they both meet and walk along the wall, each on his side surveying the damage.

Lines 16 – 19:
To each the boulders that have fallen to each.
And some are loaves and some so nearly balls
We have to use a spell to make them balance:
‘Stay where you are until our backs are turned!’

In these lines, the poet expresses the act of mending the wall and how difficult the process is. The poet and the neighbor meet on a fixed day on their side of the farm and start putting back every single boulder that has fallen on each of the sides of the wall. The poet picks up the boulder fallen on his side and restores it, while the neighbor does the same on his side. However, it is a difficult and cumbersome task as there are many fallen boulders and they are not of the same size. Some are big, some small, some are very heavy, and some are light. They are not of the same shape too. Some are round and some are oblong and it is very difficult to balance them together in the wall as it is no less than magic to keep them at their places.

Lines 20 – 24:
We wear our fingers rough with handling them.
Oh, just another kind of out-door game,
One on aside. It comes to little more:
There where it is we do not need the wall:
He is all pine and I am apple orchard.

The poet tells how difficult the task is as his and his neighbor’s hands become rough and tired while handling the boulders. And it is unnecessary work, like a play, as the poet believes that they do not need the wall because they grow different kinds of plants. The poet grows apples, and his neighbor grows pine trees.

Lines 25 – 29:
My apple trees will never get across
And eat the cones under his pines, I tell him.
He only says, ‘Good fences make good neighbors’.
Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonder
If I could put a notion in his head:

The poet has argued with his neighbor that since they grow different kinds of trees, the poet’s apples will never encroach on the land of his neighbor’s pines and thus they do not need the fencing wall. However, the neighbor is not convinced and he always answers ‘Good fences make good neighbors’ However, this time in spring, the poet is adamant to try another trick to make his neighbor realize and agree that they do not need the wall and hence, no need to mend it.

Lines 30 – 35:
‘Why do they make good neighbors? Isn’t it
Where there are cows?
But here there are no cows.
Before I built a wall I’d ask to know
What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offense.’

The poet explains his trick, his new line of argument. He asks his neighbor why good fences make good neighbors? He explains to the neighbor that the grass on another side often attracts cows and to stop the cows from going to other person’s farms, they build fences. However, neither the poet nor his neighbor has got any cow, so why do they need the wall? The poet says that this time he will mend the wall only after knowing what his neighbor is keeping safe by building the wall and what is he keeping out of his reach. The poet stresses that this time, he might not agree to mend the wall without knowing the proper reason.

Lines 36 – 41:
Something there is that doesn’t love a wall,
That wants it down.’ I could say ‘Elves’ to him,
But it’s not elves exactly, and I’d rather
He said it for himself. I see him there
Bringing a stone grasped firmly by the top
In each hand, like an old-stone savage armed.

In these lines, the poet says that despite his initial adamancy, the act of mending the wall is going on as he failed to convince the neighbor. He again speculates that the wall could have been pulled down by some mysterious force, maybe the Elves. However, the poet decides not to say that to his neighbor as it may offend him which the poet doesn’t want. The poet rather wishes that his neighbor may himself realize it and give up the strenuous task of mending and keeping the wall.

The poet then observes his neighbor picking up a fallen boulder from the wall and feels that he resembles an uncouth and uncivilized inhabitant of the stone age, whose weapons are the very rocks that make up the wall.

Lines 42 – 46:
He moves in darkness as it seems to me –
Not of woods only and the shade of trees.
He will not go behind his father’s saying,
And he likes having thought of it so well
He says again, “Good fences make good neighbors.”

In these lines, the poet says that he feels that his neighbor has some kinship with the darkness or ignorance and he is not ready to learn new things, light. This darkness is not of dense woods and shades of tall trees. But this darkness is of rudimentary archaic ideas, thoughts, traditions, and rituals. The neighbor cannot disagree with his father in saying that good fences account for peace among neighbors.

Robert Frost an excellent use of Paradox in this poem by juxtaposing two opposing instances and opinions by repeating the contrasting lines ‘Something there is that doesn’t love a wall’ and ‘Good fences make good neighbors’. The poem ends with ‘Good fences make good neighbors’ as the poet suggests that this old saying may appear archaic and useless but it holds more weight and sense. Even if the neighbor is a savage, the wall will keep the poet safe against his neighbor, and mending the wall keeps these two neighbors peaceful and stable.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Swami and Friends by R. K. Narayan | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Swami and Friends was the first novel by R. K. Narayan that was published in the year 1935. R. K. Narayan along with Mulk Raj Anand, and Raja Rao was a prominent author of early Indian literature in English. Most of his works s set in the fictional South Indian town of Malgudi. Malgudi is a fictional town that is both mythical and mundane and thus it becomes a place that is no place in reality yet it can be any town, any place in India.

Swami and Friends was the first part of a trilogy whose sequels were The Bachelor of Arts, published in 1937, and The English Teacher, published in 1945. The major themes of Swami and Friends include teenage, child psychology, authority, innocence, oppression and escape, colonial domination, friendship, belonging, and competition. Swami and Friends was the first work of R. K. Narayan that got published with the help of his friend Graham Greene who recommended his book to publishers. The initial title of the novel was Swami the Tate, which indicated the excellent skills of Swami as a cricket player, an allrounder batsman, and bowler much like Maurice Tate, the English cricketer. However, the title was changed to Swami and Friend considering the earlier success of Rudyard Kipling’s Stalky & Co.

Characters of Swami and Friends

Swami or Swaminathan is the main character of the novel. He is a 10 years old school-going boy who is a bit lazy and doesn’t like studying much. He is innocent and honest but doesn’t mind telling lies to his father or friends. He is a good friend and a good cricketer. He is popular among his friends which include Mani, Somu, Shankar, and Samuel or Pea. Mani lives with his poor widowed mother. He is strongly built and is also known as ‘Mighty good-for-nothing.’ He often bullies his classmates but he is not good at studies. Somu is the monitor of Swami’s class. He is confident and tries to impose his authority. Swami calls him the ‘uncle of the class.’ Shankar is a very studious and brilliant boy in Swami’s class. Swami admires Shankar’s intellect and often takes his help. However, Shankar leaves Malgudi as his father is transferred to another town. Samuel is the only Christian boy in the class who is short in height and thus, Swami and his friends call him the Pea (Matar). Rajam is the new boy in the class and is the son of the Deputy Superintendent of Police of Malgudi. He is a rich boy who fluently speaks English like a European kid. Being the son of the DSP, he gets more attention at school. He is fearless, witty, and authoritative. Initially, Swami feels threatened by Rajam as he loses his popularity but soon he develops a friendship with Rajam and becomes his fan so much so that his older friends start chiding him as ‘Rajam’s tail.’ Swami develops an inferiority complex. When Rajam visits Swami’s house, Swami lies to Rajam, saying that the room they were seated in was his room and not his father’s when the opposite was true. Rajam sees past Swami’s sham and yet is gracious enough not to ridicule him in his dwelling. Swami and his four old friends do a great job of seeing the positives of their differences but struggle to see the good in Rajam. Mani especially has animosity towards Rajam. However, Rajam manages to bring all of them together and be a close friends. Later on, he gives the idea of making a cricket team. He becomes the captain of the Malgudi Cricket Club (M.C.C) whose other members include Swami, Mani, Somu, and Samuel.

Shrinivasan is Swami’s father. He is a lawyer who is a strict and authoritative father. He adores Swami but wishes to work hard. He wishes Swami to study for long hours but Swami is careless about his studies. When all other students including Mani realize the importance of exam and answering an exam paper with all sincerity or at least as well as possible, Swami is careless and is more interested in non-essentials like clips, pins, nibs, exam cardboard pads, etc to buy which he asks money from his father. He is more interested in the summer vacations that would come after exams. He is so careless about his studies that he gets bored with exams and writes answers haphazardly and leaves the examination hall twenty minutes early. Lakshmi is Swami’s mother who is a housewife. She cares for Swami but remains busy with her kitchen chores and nursing Swami’s newly-born younger brother. Swami’s grandmother is an old religious lady who tells stories to Swami and is fond of him. However, Swami feels that both his father and mother are more concerned for his younger brother. Mr. Ebenezar is Swami’s scripture teacher at the Albert Mission School. He is a Christian fanatic and degrades Swami’s religion, Hinduism, and considers Christianity superior to other religions. Later, he is scolded by the headmaster of the school.

Summary of Swami and Friends

The story is set in the 1930s in British Colonial India. Swami is a 10-year-old boy who lives with his father, mother, and grandmother. His father is an authoritative disciplinarian and doesn’t like his son acting lazy. He may appear irritable to Swami at times but he cares for him and wishes him to succeed in his life. Swami has four close friends Mani, Somu, Shankar, and Samuel who are his classmates at Albert Mission School. Often they call Samuel Pea because of his short height and thin figure while Mani is the tallest and strongest among them and is often called Mighty good-for-nothing. Swami is witty and often leads his friends in games. One day, Mr. Ebenezar, Swami’s scripture teacher criticizes and degrades the Hindu religion in the class. All the students including Samuel, who is a Christian don’t like Mr. Ebenezar. As the teacher continues to chide Hindu deities while praising Christianity, Swami stands against him and asks some witty questions that prove otherwise. Mr. Ebenezar gets angry and punishes Swami. Later on, Swami informs his father about the incident and when his father complains about it to the headmaster, he scolds Mr. Ebenezar. While Swami’s friends appreciate Swami for his wittiness, they stress that it was a school matter and he didn’t need to complain to his father about it. At home, Swami feels that his father isn’t caring enough as his father continues to push him to study for long hours and understand the importance of exams. This creates a distance between the father and the son. Lakshmi, his mother cares for Swami but she is often aloof because of housework and as she gives birth to Swami’s younger brother, she gets busier in nursing the newly born child.

Meanwhile, a new student Rajam joins the Albert Mission School in Swami’s class. He is the son of the new DSP of Malgudi who came from Madras. Rajam is rich, intelligent, and fluent in English. Being the son of DSP he gains the limelight. Swami and his friends don’t like Rajam much. Swami feels an inferiority complex as he cannot match Rajam with his charm, good English, and richness. Yet, Swami finds himself attracted to Rajam and gradually develops a friendship with Rajam. Swami’s old friends start ignoring Swami and calling him Rajam’s Tail. Mani hates Rajam and warns Swami to remain away from Rajam. It isn’t until the three boys confront each other that they realize they have a lot in common, and become fast friends. However, the other three friends remain away from Swami. One day, Rajam invites Swami, Mani, and the other three friends to his home and offers them cakes and new toys if they agree to become friends again. The six boys forget their differences and become a pack of friends.

Swami is intelligent and witty but he is lazy and careless towards his studies and exams. His father warns him that if he won’t study well, he will flunk and will be forced to study with his juniors. Swami convinces his father that he will study well but most of his time is spent on games.

It is a time when Gandhi’s non-cooperative movement is at its peak. A popular leader of Malgudi is arrested in Bombay to oppose which people in Malgudi announce a protest march. Swami hears his father discuss the matter and feels the nationalist fervor. The next day, when he is feeling a bit lazy and wishes to avoid school, his father forces him to go to school. As he goes to school, he sees a crowd shouting slogans against colonial rulers and in support of Gandhi and Gauri Shankar, the leader who was recently arrested. Swami is swept by the crowd and joins them. He feels as if he is giving his bits to the nationalist cause. The DSP decides to quash the protest violently and policemen start beating the protestors with batons. As the crowd responds by throwing stones at police, Swami too picks up a rock and throws it toward his school, and runs back home.

The next day, the school headmaster enquires about the incident and Swami disrespectfully shouts that he doesn’t care for the school and runs away. He is punished for his actions. Not only is Swami forced to switch to a more strict school, but Rajam, being the son of the DSP, is hurt by the actions of his friend, making their friendship unstable.

Swami’s new school The Board High School is an indigenous school and hence, it is not as reputed as Albert Mission School. It is a stricter school with rigorous school studies and extracurricular and co-curricular activities. Attendance is compulsory and the homework and classwork surpass that of Albert Mission School. The Albert Mission School shows the complacency of the Colonial government. Despite being more reputed, that school had little to do with the advancement of students while the teachers openly engaged in trying to proselytize students. The Board High School represents the upcoming wave of Indianized schools with their rigorous school studies and extracurricular and co-curricular activities to mainly prove that even indigenous schools could be run as well as British schools. Swami realizes that his life was much easier at Albert High School but he is forced to learn the rigorous ways and take charge of his life and studies. In a sense, it proves to be better for him though he feels suffocated. His main grumble is that he lost his friends and Rajam is angry with him. Mani softens Rajam’s attitude towards Swami and then Rajam plans to create Malgudi Cricket Club. Swami is a good cricket player and is often called Malgudi’s Tate by his friends. He decides to help Rajam in establishing his cricket club. The two boys are intensely passionate about the team, but tensions rise as Swami’s strict school and intense workload get in the way of his commitment to the club. Rajam threatens to never speak to Swami again if he misses the match of the year against a competing club Young Men’s Union (YMU).

Despite his best efforts, Swami is forbidden by his strict headmaster from leaving early to go to his daily practices. In a rage, Swami throws his headmaster’s cane out of the window. Then, he thinks that his father Srinivasan, would not tolerate his dismissal even from this school in a matter of a few months. Thus, Swami resolutely decides to run away from home. He takes a naive decision, thinking that even though he was running away from home, he would be able to return somehow to the Y.M.U. vs. M.C.C. cricket match happening in one and a half-day. While fleeing, he becomes lost and wanders until he is rescued. Meanwhile, Lakshmi goes berserk, creates a funeral atmosphere in the house, and stops eating until Swami returns. When Swami learns this, he feels elated that his younger infant brother was sidelined in his place of him, at least in this singular instance in his life. While he was missing, Shrinivasan blames himself for being too harsh and aloof to Swami’s concerns. Thus, during the disappearance, the prime thought in his mind is not that Swami has had an accident or been kidnapped but that he must have committed suicide due to harassment.

He has missed the M.C.C. match he swore to go to. Already knowing his best friend may never speak to him again, Swami finds out from his friend Mani that Rajam is leaving the next morning to move to a new city with his family. Swami tries to mend his friendship with Rajam by giving him his favorite book Anderson’s Fairy Tales. This is Swami’s pathetic and simplistic gesture to at least keep his memory fresh in the mind of his friend, who meant so much to him. Swami fails to realize that Rajam would never read Anderson because he is too old and well-read for reading fairy tales.

In a desperate attempt to make amends, Swami rushes to the train station the next morning with a book he intends to give to Rajam as a way to make peace. He nearly misses the train’s departure and looks at his best friend through the window, who still refuses to speak to him. Mani must hand him the book, as he would not take it from Swami. The story ends as the train pulls away. Swami is left wondering if his friend will write and if he is forgiven. The writer leaves the reader with the same question. However, it doesn’t matter. Rajam came like a tornado into the lives of Swami and the rest of his friends and changed them forever, raising their standards about studies, friendship, and good behavior. Swami has a better sense and attitude towards life, friendship, studies, and the importance of exams. He understands his father, mother, and younger brother better now.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Age of Enlightenment in English Literature | Historical Background, Literary Features, Major Writers

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Age of Enlightenment in English literature corresponds to the period from 1700 to 1800 during which, the belief that science and logic give people more knowledge and understanding than tradition and religion gained traction. The Age of Enlightenment is also known as the Age of Prose and Reason, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Sensibility.

Historical Background

The basis for this common belief was developed long with the works of Francis Bacon who proposed the idea of inductive reasoning. In “The Advancement of Learning” and “The New Organon” Bacon expressed the technique of induction through which we establish truth or knowledge on the ground of real observation of several experiences or occurrences. His works gave impetus to the Scientific Revolution which suffered a jolt because of the political upheaval during the Interregnum but the Restoration period brought the scientific method back on the course. The Royal Society was established in 1660 and it was influenced by the imaginative ‘House of Solomon’ in Bacon’s “New Atlantis”.

The other thinkers of influence included Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza. Bacon gave the idea of empiricism and Descartes proposed rationalism. Baruch Spinoza and Leibniz supported Descartes’ Rationalism while empiricists like John Locke, George Berkley, and David Hume opposed it. Nevertheless, both rationalism and empiricism advocated logic. The subtle difference was the final authority to be considered as the foundation of certainty of knowledge. Empiricists favored experience based on human senses, while rationalists supported reason. In religion, you accepted the dictates of the church; in science, you would turn to a recognized authority like Aristotle, Ptolemy, etc. The Wife of Bath trusted experience over authority, but she was wrong to do so. In the Age of Enlightenment, she would be right. Copernicus and Galileo were the Wives of Bath when they trusted their own observations of stars to support their heliocentric view of the world as opposed to the Bible and also opposed to Ptolemy, the then authority of science. Newton further used empiricism to explain gravity, and the laws of motion and developed a whole new mathematics of Calculus. Empiricism gave way to skepticism. Skepticism against dogmas empowered individualism and called for freedom from religious dogmas. The people of the Enlightenment age believed in the universal authority of reason and observation. In his famous work, “Discourse on Method”, Descartes at first doubted the deliverances of his senses, as they frequently mislead us; then he questioned the procedure of reasoning; he reckoned that our universe might be an illusion. But in suspecting everything to be misleading or fake, Descartes speculated: “I think, therefore, I am”

Political and Religious Context of the Age of Enlightenment

Enlightenment wasn’t just about science. Even John Milton met Galileo in his lifetime and admired him, yet, his major work was Paradise Lost surrounding the Biblical Genesis, Original Sin, and Satan. People of the Enlightenment Age were fed up with religious doctrines. they wanted proof; did not want to accept an idea as true just because some person of authority said it. And that gave way to the direct opposition to any idea supporting the Divine Right.

After the death of King Charles II in 1685, King James II became the monarch. But he had to face the opposition of Whigs and proponents of protestants and was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in favor of his Protestant daughter Mary and her Husband William III. The deposition of King James II settled a century of political and civil strife in England by confirming the primacy of the English Parliament over the Crown through the Bill of Rights passed in 1689 which limited the monarch's power. It was the period when England was striving for individual freedom and rights when John Locke presented his idea of Modern Man. Man, Locke says, is not created with original sin in him and he is not inherently wicked; rather man is born as a blank sheet of paper, you can create whatever sort of man by environmental influences, education, experiences, and what this means is that education became important. So, Man became a creature of indefinite possibility for progress. This reduced the controlling power of the Church and Monarch both on the common man. John Locke presented his idea of the social contract that suggests that the government’s authority lies in the consent of the governed. The Lockean idea of natural rights that stresses that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty, and Property" became the base of new socio-political arrangements. It turned to “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness” in the U.S. Declaration of Independence. It was the effect of Humanism and Individualism of the Age of Enlightenment. This new interest in Individuals reduced the importance of theology while giving impetus to humanism. Deism became a common belief.

Enlightenment brought a geographical change too as Scotland and England officially became one and the Parliament of Scotland was abolished through the Act of Union in 1707 and changed England to Great Britain. Act Of Union of 1800 again united Great Britain and Ireland and the unison became The United Kingdom of Great Britain in which, not the king but the English Parliament was the primary force of recognition.

Literary features of the Age of Enlightenment in English Literature

The changing socio-political and religious orders had an influence on the literature of the Age of Enlightenment. Robert Walpole became the first de facto prime minister of Great Britain. He continued as the prime minister for 20 years. Despite his political success, he was accused of corruption and was termed the Great Corruptor and was often compared to Jonathan Wild, the Thief Catcher. John Gay satirized both in his play The Beggar’s Opera. Walpole’s other enemies included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding, and Samuel Johnson. To avoid any such satirical criticism anymore, Robert Walpole introduced the Licensing Act of 1737 to control and censor what was being said about the British government through theatre. This crippled the English theatre but was an equally strong impetus to other means of literature in novels, pamphlets, essays, and other forms of prose.

Licensing act significantly reduced the number of dramas in the 18th century but it helped in bringing a reading revolution. People began to read "extensively", finding as many books as they could. The lack of active theatres gave way to the development of other public spheres. People gathered at coffee houses and discussed political, social, and scientific developments. That gave rise to the concept of journalism and magazines and the print industry got a new impetus as not only novels and pamphlets and other books were becoming the vogue, but newspapers and magazines were also making their space in public. The increased consumption of reading materials brought about the ‘social Enlightenment.’ Novels, books, pamphlets, newspapers, and journals became the "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". It also gave way to the printing and production of new dictionaries. Samuel Johnson published A Dictionary of the English Language in 1755. Bishop Robert Lowth published his dictionary titled A Short Introduction to English Grammar in 1762. The first edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica was published in 1771. Lindley Murray published English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners in 1794. The authors of the Age of Enlightenment used satire frequently to attack human vices and follies.

We can broadly divide the English Literature of the Age of Enlightenment into three parts. It was a period of intense prose writing. The first part can be considered from 1700 to 1745 which is termed the Augustan period. English writers of this era tried to emulate the golden era of Romans under Emperor Augustus and thus, it is called the Augustan Period of Enlightenment Age. In this period, Writers like Alexander Pope emphasized Classical poetry styles. Jonathan Swift and Daniel Defoe wrote realistic novels, and Joseph Addison and Richard Steele wrote political pamphlets and essays in this period. Then came the period of Samuel Johnson. From 1745-1760, English authors like Henry Fielding, Samuel Richardson, and Tobias Smollett wrote realistic social novels. The period from 1760-1800 is known for Sentimalism during which Laurence Sterne and Charlotte Lenox wrote novels, while Oliver Goldsmith, William Blake, Thomas Chatterton, Thomas Percy, and others began the revival of poetry. 

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Birches by Robert Frost | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. In 1934, Robert Frost wrote an essay titled The Figure a Poem Makes which was about the experience of writing a poem. Through this essay, Frost talked about how a poem should offer the image of the subject in the mind of the reader. The essay is all about imagery. Robert Frost was famous as a nature poet who described nature, the rural, and the wild endearingly. One such poem was Birches which was published in 1915 in The Atlantic Monthly. 'Birches' was again published in his collection of poems titled Mountain Interval in 1916. Birches are a kind of medium-sized trees or shrubs that are commonly found in North America.

Birches are supple but strong. They easily bent without breaking. As the poet observes these trees bent on a side while standing alongside straight trees, he imagines a boy swinging on them like he used to do during his childhood. However, he knows that the birches are most probably bent because of the snow that has accumulated on them after the ice storm. Despite that, he likes his imagination of a boy playing and swinging on the birches and causing them to bent.

Structure of Birches

Birches is a long poem with 59 lines written in blank verse, in unrhymed iambic pentameter with great stress on the ‘sound of sense.’ The poet considered more the sound of a natural activity while describing it in the poem than the rhyme of it. For example, the poet describes the cracking of ice on leaves and branches of the trees as “Soon the sun’s warmth makes them shed crystal shells / Shattering and avalanching on the snow crust — / Such heaps of broken glass to sweep away…” The poet suggests that swinging on the birches like a young boy, or dreaming about it is like a reprieve for oneself from the harsh realities of the world for a while, to envigorate oneself, and then come back to face the truth. Frost used blank verses for this poem as it is a poem of talk, offering deep and meaningful thoughts and feelings to the reader in a meditative, reflective mode. The poem is written conversationally as the poet is talking to the readers in first person narrative.

Summary of Birches:

Lines 1-5

When I see birches bend to left and right
Across the lines of straighter darker trees,
I like to think some boy's been swinging them.
But swinging doesn't bend them down to stay
As ice-storms do. Often you must have seen them

The narrator observes some birch trees bent to the sides while many other taller trees are standing straight. The poet is aware of the suppleness of birch trees as he enjoyed swinging on birch trees during his childhood. However, he notices that when a boy swings along a birch tree, it doesn’t remain bent on one side for long as it swings to the other side. This doesn’t happen when birch trees get bent because of the accumulation of snow on them after a heavy ice storm.

Lines 6-9

Loaded with ice a sunny winter morning
After a rain. They click upon themselves
As the breeze rises, and turn many-colored
As the stir cracks and crazes their enamel

The poet continues explaining the birch trees and how they appear and behave after rain and says that the readers must have seen birch trees loaded with ice on a sunny winter morning after it has stopped raining. The birch trees produce a metallic sound like that of iron under the effect of the wind, by clicking against themselves, and become many-colored because of the cracks in their enamel caused by their movement in the wind.

Lines 10-13

Soon the sun's warmth makes them shed crystal shells
Shattering and avalanching on the snow-crust —
Such heaps of broken glass to sweep away
You'd think the inner dome of heaven had fallen.

The sun’s warmth starts melting the ice and the snow falls from the trees like crystal shells. When these lumps of snow that appear like glass, strike the ground, they shatter into many pieces like broken glass. It appears as if the beauty of heaven has fallen on the earth.

Lines 14-20

They are dragged to the withered bracken by the load,
And they seem not to break; though once they are bowed
So low for long, they never right themselves:
You may see their trunks arching in the woods
Years afterwards, trailing their leaves on the ground
Like girls on hands and knees that throw their hair
Before them over their heads to dry in the sun.

The poet then explains how the top of the birch trees are dragged and bowed down, by a load of ice accumulated on them, kissing the fern growing on the ground. The weight of ice has kept them bent for so long that even when the snow falls and shatters like broken pieces of glass, the trees cannot straighten themselves up and their trunk remains arched. The poet then offers a metaphor, suggesting that the arched trees appear as if girls are sitting on their hands and knees, with their hair spread before them to dry in the sun.

Lines 21-27

But I was going to say when Truth broke in
With all her matter-of-fact about the ice-storm
I should prefer to have some boy bend them
As he went out and in to fetch the cows —
Some boy too far from town to learn baseball,
Whose only play was what he found himself,
Summer or winter, and could play alone.

While the poet is mesmerized by the beauty of birches bent due to a load of snow, he says that he would prefer to believe that the birches are bent because some by, who is living afar from the modern town to play games like baseball, went to fetch his cows and decided to play with the birch trees swinging on them. He enjoys this play irrespective of the season as he plays alone.

Line 28-32

One by one he subdued his father's trees
By riding them down over and over again
Until he took the stiffness out of them,
And not one but hung limp, not one was left
For him to conquer.

The poet furthers his imagination of the carefree boy who keeps playing with the birches. The boy swings on all the birch trees one by one as all are owned by his father. And one by one, he subdues the stiffness of all the birches until no more straight birch remains on the ground. He conquers all of them making them bent against him.

Lines 32-41

He learned all there was
To learn about not launching out too soon
And so not carrying the tree away
Clear to the ground. He always kept his poise
To the top branches, climbing carefully
With the same pains you use to fill a cup
Up to the brim, and even above the brim.
Then he flung outward, feet first, with a swish,
Kicking his way down through the air to the ground.
So was I once myself a swinger of birches.

The poet then explains the proper way of swinging on the birch tree without uprooting or breaking it and without getting harmed. The poet says that the boy he has imagined is smart enough to learn the proper way and he is patient as he doesn’t launch himself too soon and reaches the top branches with the utmost care, balancing himself with the same pain and care that one bestows while filling the cup to the brim, or even above the brim. Then he used to fling himself forward with his feet stretched forward, and passed gently through the air to touch the ground.

The poet says that during his childhood, he too played with the birches in the same careful, yet carefree manner as he was a patient swinger.

Lines 42-49

And so I dream of going back to be.
It's when I'm weary of considerations,
And life is too much like a pathless wood
Where your face burns and tickles with the cobwebs
Broken across it, and one eye is weeping
From a twig's having my lashed opened.
I'd like to get away from earth awhile
And then come back to it and begin over.

The poet then expresses his wish, his desire to return back to childhood and enjoy the same carefree attitude. Yet the poet clarifies that he is not obsessed with this desire. But uses it as a reprieve, a way to refresh himself. He dreams of going back to childhood when he is too tired of his duties as a grown-up man and when his worries and struggles take a toll on him. Then in such moments, he decides to take a break and forget all his troubles and worries and think like that boy, like he was during his childhood. This momentary recluse offers him a chance to reinvigorate himself and return back to his present self refreshed. He then takes on his life with a better attitude and confidence.

Lines 50-59

May no fate willfully misunderstand me
And half grant what I wish and snatch me away
Not to return. Earth's the right place for love:
I don't know where it's likely to go better
I'd like to go by climbing a birch tree,
And climb black branches up a snow-white trunk
Toward heaven, till the tree could bear no more,
But dipped its top and set me down again.
That would be good both going and coming back.
One could do worse than be a swinger of birches.

The poet then stresses that he is no escapist and prays that nobody, not even his fate should consider him an escapist who is trying to run away from his duties, burdens, and life. He claims that he doesn’t wish to escape from the earthly world and its realities as he believes that the earth is the right place for love, and he does not know of a better place than where he is now. Thus, if the birches can lead him to a better place (to heaven), then he would like to go towards heaven by swinging upon a birch tree that takes him back to the earth, to the ground realities. The poet says that it would be good for him to keep going away from the real world to get some rest and return back to conquer his struggles as one does while swinging. In the last line, the poet says that anyone who doesn’t like to swing on the birch trees to keep a balance between facts and fancy is worse than the swinger of the birches. A person may get tired, puzzled, and defeated by the harsh realities of life. He may choose to make use of fancies like the poet's dreams of returning to his childhood and enjoying swinging on birches, but it cannot be a road to escapism, it is just a way to reinvigorate oneself because there is no place better than his real life as Earth is the right place for love.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Barber’s Trade Union by Mulk Raj Anand | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Mulk Raj Anand was a brave writer who dealt with the political structures and societal problems of the time and offered solutions in his own way. A similar story of the struggle of a growing kid against a prejudiced and discriminatory society is told by Mulk Raj Anand in The Barber’s Trade Union.

Chandu is the protagonist, a teenage boy. Unlike Bakha (Untouchable), and Munno (Coolie) who were submissive and succumbed to the circumstances, Chandu is a dynamic character full of confidence, candor, and ingenuity.

Summary of The Barber’s Trade Union

The narrator introduces Chandu as one of the makers of modern India. Chandu and the narrator used to live in the same village and they attended the same school. Chandu was a good student. Chandu’s father was the barber of the village. The narrator’s mother didn’t like Chandu much because Chandu won a scholarship at school while she had to pay fees for her son to be taught. Furthermore, the narrator belonged to a higher class and caste. His mother always dissuaded him from being a friend of Chandu, a low caste. Chandu’s father died of an illness and he had to stop his studies so that he may work and earn for his family. He already had learned all the skills of a barber and his father had taught him some other skills too like treating pimples, boils, and ulcers on people’s bodies. Chandu started visiting the homes of all the important people of the village, including the landlord Bijay Chand, Lawyer Lalla Hukum Chand, Pandit Paramanand, and the Sahukar of the village to shave their beards and cut their hair promptly. Everyone would offer 2 paise for his services that his mother would collect.

He used to visit Raja Bijay Chand’s house every morning to shave his beard. Often people gave gifts to Chandu for his good behavior and prompt service. The Subedar of the village offered him khaki pants to wear while Lalla Hukum Chand offered his old frayed black velvet waistcoat decorated all over with shell buttons that he no longer use, and a round felt cap to Chandu.

The narrator always felt a bit envious of Chandu as Chandu enjoyed much more freedom. After completing his routine of duties in the village and taking bath, Chandu used to visit the nearby big town while sitting on the footrest of the closed carriage of Lalla Hukum Chand who used to daily visit the district court situated in the town. As he was earning, he often used to buy little gifts for the narrator and would tell him the marvelous rich things he used to see in the big market of the town. Chandu often used to talk about Kalan Khan, a dentist who worked in the town. Chandu often observed him during his visits to the town and was highly impressed by his sense of duty and his clothing. While he was working as a barber, he had this dream of becoming a doctor but he couldn’t as he already had dropped out of school. Chandu would often talk about the nice impressive dressing sense of Kalan Khan who used to wear a starched shirt with an ivory collar and bow tie, a black coat and striped pantaloons, and leather shoes. Doctor Kalan Khan also had a leather bag that he used to keep his instruments to be used in dentistry.

One day, Chandu informed the narrator that he has bought a new set of barber instruments. He asked if it would be a good idea if he buys a leather bag for the new instruments, a new shirt, a coat, striped pants, and a pair of black leather shoes like dentist Kalan Khan? The narrator said that it would help him keep his tools properly and he will look great in the new dress. Chandu said that though he cannot learn as much as doctor Kalan Khan, his father taught him to treat pimples, boils, and ulcers on people’s bodies. Thus, even though he is not a doctor, he knows how to treat people and can wear the same clothes. The narrator agreed with him and encouraged him to buy the leather bag and new clothes.

The next day, when Chandu visited landlord Bijay Chand’s house to shave his beard, Bijay Chand noticed his leather bag and leather shoes and got furious. He stopped him from entering his house and debase the house with the leather shoes and leather bag which he said is made of the skin of a dead cow. Chandu said that this is the dress of a doctor to which the landlord abused him and said that he is the son of a barber and will always remain a barber and he should wear clothes befitting his status of a lowborn barber. He threatened him that if he saw him again in such a dress, he will flog him. Chandu got out of the landlord’s house and proceeded to Sahukar’s shop to shave his beard. Sahukar saw him coming out of the landlord’s house and started abusing him. He said that when Chandu must take care of his old mother and home as his father is no more, he is engaging in nefarious activities and disguising himself as a clown. He told him to get rid of the clothes of hospital folks and then only he will let him touch his hair. Chandu was humiliated and decided to go away from there. The narrator was observing all this and he tried to support him. He said to the Sahukar that he may ask Pandit Parmanand, who was coming out of the house of the landlord as he was summoned by Bijay Chand for cleaning his house because Chandu entered with leather shoes. Pandit Parmanand shouted at the narrator for supporting Chandu. Pandit said that if the narrator works hard and studies well in school, he may become a doctor one day, and then he may wear the dress of hospital folks but Chandu, being a low caste born, has no right to wear such a dress. Chandu was too humiliated and he decided to run away from the village.

In the evening, the narrator saw Chandu again. He informed the narrator that he went to the town where he earned more than a rupee by shaving the beards of people in the market. He said that what happened to him in the morning was good after all as it offered him a way to earn much more. Chandu said that now he has decided to teach a lesson to all those who humiliated him. He said that within three-four days, he will show the narrator something so hilarious that he will have the best laugh of his life.

The next day, Chandu met the narrator and said that he has decided to buy a secondhand cycle from Lala Hukum Chand’s son for rupees five and asked the narrator to help him in learning to ride the bicycle. It will allow him to go to the town early in the morning without waiting for Lala Hukum Chand’s carrier. The narrator agrees to help him learn to ride the bicycle. Chandu’s mother is anxious though as the people of the village told her that they won't let Chandu work in the village unless he atones his sin of using leather shoes and a leather bag. Chandu, being ingenious and intelligent, learns to ride the bicycle pretty soon and starts going to the town and earning much more than he was earning in the village. As his mother sees that her son is making much more money, she decides to support him and oppose the villagers from bullying him. After four-five days, Chandu visit’s the narrator’s house and takes him to show the hilarious thing he promised. He takes him to the farm village potter near the house of the landlord from where they could see the front of Sahukar’s shop. The narrator and Chandu observe a gathering of farmers sitting in front of the shop as they have come to sell their crops to the landlord and Sahukar. Chandu asks the narrator if he has observed something weird, to which the narrator says no. Then Chandu says that the narrator should see carefully and then he will see the landlord sitting among the peasants with his long-jawed face dirtied by the white scum of his unshaven beard. As the narrator notices, he laughs loudly. Then the narrator also sees the Sahukar with an excessive mustache dirtied by the brown tinge of tobacco he is chewing. Chandu asks the narrator to go running fast by the shop while shouting Beavers, Beavers, satirizing the landlord and Sahukar. The narrator readily agrees as he remembered how they abused his friend a few days ago. As the narrator passes by the shop and shouts Beavers, Beavers!, the peasants sitting around them started laughing loudly. This angered the landlord who told his men to catch the boy as he is supporting Chandu, the barber. But they failed to catch the narrator.

The landlord, Sahukar, and other eminent men of the village were deeply troubled as it has been seven days since Chandu stopped taking care of their growing beards and hair. The rumor of Chandu’s strike spread like fire. The Sahukar came up with a solution and told the landlord to call the barber from the nearby village Verka to cut their beard and hair and in return, they may pay him one Anna instead of two paise. However, Chandu had already thought of this situation and he outwitted them by contacting Dhunoo, the barber of village Verka, who was his cousin. Chandu had seen Niranjan Das’s barber shop in the town many times. Together, they opened a shop beside the road from the village to the town. They decided that from that day, they won’t go to anybody’s house to shave their beard or cut their hair. If anybody has to take their services, they must visit their shop and pay the genuine fee. They decided to name their shop Chandu Brothers, Hairdressing and Shaving Saloon.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Beggar’s Opera by John Gay | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. John Gay was an English poet, satirist, and dramatist of England who is best known for his ballad opera titled The Beggar’s Opera which he wrote in 1728. Ballad Opera was a genre of English stage entertainment that emerged at the beginning of the 18^th century as a response to the dominance of Italian operas over the English entertainment stage. The Beggar’s Opera proved to be the first successful Ballad Opera and John Gay became the pioneer of this genre. John Gay was a satirist and a prominent figure of the Scriblerus Club whose other members included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Arbuthnot, Henry St. John, and Thomas Parnell. The group often worked in collaboration to create political and societal satire and to avoid any repulsive offense against their writing, they created a fictional figure titled Martinus Scriblerus, through whose writings they accomplished their satirical aims. The Beggar’s Opera satirically lampooned Whigs politician Robert Walpole notoriously known as the Great Corruptor. In addition, the opera also satirizes then-famous criminals including Jonathan Wild, the thief-taker, Claude Duval, the highwayman, Charles Hitchen, and Jack Sheppard, the prison-breaker.

Characters of The Beggar’s Opera

Mr. Peachum is the leader of the biggest syndicate of criminals who betrays or discards his thieves, highwaymen, and prostitutes when they are no longer useful to him. He is based on Jonathan Wild. Polly Peachum is his young, beautiful daughter who falls in love with a highwayman Mr. Macheath and marries him without the consent of her parents. She remains totally devoted to him. Mrs. Peachum is Polly’s mother. She is an aid to her husband and understands his business. Lockit is the jailer of private police or thief-catchers. He is an associate of Mr. Peachum who aspires of becoming an independent crime lord. He also runs a syndicate of lesser strength. Lockit is based on Charles Hitchens. Lucy Lockit is the daughter of Lockit who also loves Macheath. She despises him for marrying Polly instead of her but still has a great passion for him and continues to try to win him back from Polly. Diana Trapes is a former prostitute who is now the head of the female gang criminals who work under Mr. Peachum’s direction. Macheath is a highwayman who worked for Peachum but then broke away and began his gang of criminals. He is liked by common people for his Robin Hood kind of activities. His character is based on Jack Sheppard, the prison-breaker who was also known as the Honest Jack. He is a womanizer who though loves and marries Polly, has many other lovers. Filch is a petty thief working for Mr. Peachum. Jenny Diver and Suky Tawdry are two thieves of Peachum’s gang who conspire with him to catch Macheath. Dolly Trull, Betty Doxy, Mrs. Vixen, and Mrs. Slammekin are other female criminals of Peachum’s gang who worked with Macheath before he left Peachum’s gang. He is a womanizer who had relationships with each of them in the past. Bob Booty is a thief working for Mr. Peachum. Mr. Peachum is not satisfied with him and blacklists him to be caught and punished. Bob Booty was the nickname of Robert Walpole. The Beggar and the Player are two friends who introduce the play. The Beggar is the author of the opera within the play and he reappears at the end of the play to discuss and revise the story's ending.

Summary of The Beggar’s Opera

It is a three-act play. In the beginning, the Beggar appears and introduces the characters to the Player. The Beggar is the author who says that though his opera contains no recitative, prologue, or epilogue, it should be considered as he assures the audience that his play follows all other conventions of the day's fashionable operas. Mr. Peachum appears and justifies his actions as a thief catcher while he is the leader of the biggest syndicate of criminals in London. He is preparing the blacklist of unproductive thieves and criminals who no longer are profitable and thus, will be caught. He in return will get the awards declared on them. As Mrs. Peachum hears that he is adding Bob Booty to that list, she protests and advises him not to do so as Bob Booty is very powerful and may harm them. Mr. Peachum is indifferent. He rather laments over his suspicion that their daughter Polly is romantically involved with a notorious highway robber Macheath. He instructs Mrs. Peachum to anyhow stop Polly as it will harm his business. He stresses that Polly must not marry Macheath, or else her money and potential earnings will default to Macheath. Mrs. Peachum calls Filch to enquire about Polly. Filch is reluctant in revealing secrets of Polly. Mrs. Peachum takes him away to enquire differently.

Polly appears and tells his father not to worry as she is just flirting with Macheath to gain goods and gifts. Mrs. Peachum appears again outraged, as Filch has revealed to her in effect alcohol about the recent marriage of Polly and Macheath. When Peachum comes to know about this, he shouts. Polly confesses that she married Macheath because she was seduced and she needed to safeguard her reputation. Mrs. Peachum asks her how she will support such a husband who is too much involved "in Gaming, Drinking and Whoring." Mr. Peachum says that Macheath is a successful robber who must have made a huge fortune. Mrs. Macheath suggests that the marriage of Polly with him can turn out to be profitable to them if he is caught and killed as then, his fortune will be legally transferred to Mr. Peachum, his father-in-law. Polly protests against this but is ignored by her parents. She immediately goes to her bedroom where Macheath is hidden. He vouches his fidelity for Polly and Polly informs him about her parents’ plan and tells him to go away and meet her again at safer times.

Macheath flees away from Peachum’s house and visits a tavern where there are many women who are prostitutes, pickpockets, thieves, and robbers. Despite their class, all of them are well-mannered and behave like ladies. Yet, the subject matter of their discussion is pickpocketing, shoplifting, or robbing. Macheath is soon surrounded by some beautiful buxom girls. Two of them are Jenny Diver and Suky Tawdry who have been sent by Mrs. Peachum to catch Macheath. Jenny Diver seduces Macheath and brings him to a corner in solitude where she and Suky Tawdry offers him excessive alcohol and he loses consciousness. As he regains, he finds himself in a cell at Newgate Prison. Jailor Lockit is a corrupt man who is an associate of Mr. Peachum. His daughter Lucy Lockit visits Macheath and scolds him for agreeing to marry her and then breaking his promise. She tells him that to see him tortured would give her pleasure. Macheath tries to pacify her but soon Polly also arrives and confronts Lucy, claiming that Maceath has already married her. Lucy gets outraged and makes Polly go away. Macheath tells her that Polly is telling a lie and she is a crazy girl who is trying to force him to marry her. He says he just pretended to marry her to save himself from her father’s wrath. Lucy accepts his lies and helps him escape jail by stealing her father's keys. When Jailor Lockit enquires her, she says that Macheath has promised to marry her. Jailor Lockit then gets worried that if Macheath is recaptured and killed, then Mr. Peachum will claim half of his wealth as legally, he is the father-in-law of Macheath. He meets Peachum and both agree to divide Macheath’s fortune between them after he is recaptured and hanged.

Polly learns about the new accord between Mr. Lockit and her father and decides to meet Lucy to take her help in protecting Macheath. Lucy thinks that if Polly is killed, she will have no hurdle in marrying Macheath and thus, tries to poison her. Polly narrowly escapes the poisoning and convinces Lucy that Macheath’s life is in danger as all of the criminals must be pursuing to catch him for the rewards Mr. Lockit and Mr. Peachum have announced. A guard of the prison informs that Macheath has been recaptured with the help of Mrs. Diana Trapes who got him inebriated. Both girls get worried and approach their fathers to beg mercy for Macheath. Mr. Lockit and Mr. Peachum are too greedy. However, their plan to kill Macheath and divide his fortune among them is open to all. Four female members of criminal gangs Dolly Trull, Betty Doxy, Mrs. Vixen, and Mrs. Slammekin visit Macheath in the prison with claims that they are pregnant with his child (to gain a right in his fortune). Lockit and Peachum realize that it won't be easy to capture Macheath’s fortune and decide to accept their daughters’ request to forgive Macheath. However, Macheath cannot fathom taking responsibility for these women claiming to be pregnant with his child and begs to be hanged.

The Beggar appears again in the penultimate scene and discusses with the Player that though the poetic justice suggests that Macheath and the other villains should be hanged, the audience demands a happy ending. So they inform that Macheath has been forgiven and invite everybody to dance and celebrate the wedding party of Polly and Macheath.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!