Rabbit at Rest by John Updike | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Rabbit at Rest is the fourth and final novel of the Rabbit series that was published in the year 1990. It is one of the most detailed novels by John Updike in which he explores the desire for death that we all carry inside us using his character Harry ‘Rabbit Angstrom. The story is set in the late 1980s. Harry is an obese 55 years old man suffering from overweight and heart issues. He still suffers problems because of his libido. In the prequel (Rabbit is Rich) he engaged in the practice of wife-swapping and Thelma Harrison, the wife of one of his old college friends and competitor Ron became his long-term mistress. Rabbit and his wife Janice have retired and since the actual owner of the family business (Toyota Dealership) is Janice, she has handed it over to Nelson who is suffering from drug addiction and is unable to maintain the business. Harry still misses his daughter Rebecca who died as Janice accidentally drowned her in the bathtub during her infancy. However, his granddaughter Judy (daughter of Nelson and Pru) is 11 years old now and she has a good relationship with Harry. Nelson’s younger son Roy is less attached to Harry and seems wary and fearful of Rabbit, much like Nelson.

Characters of Rabbit at Rest:

Harry Rabbit Angstrom is again the protagonist of the novel. He used to be a vibrant handsome athletic basketball star of his college during his youth. But now he is an obese 55 years old man who has retired from his wife’s family business at a Toyota Dealership. His wife Janice has given the authority of the business to their son Nelson who is a drug addict and confused person and can hardly handle the business. Nelson’s wife is Pru and they have two kids. 11 years old Judy who is close to her grandfather and four years old Roy, who like his father Nelson, doesn’t have a cordial relationship with Rabbit. Ron is an old college mate of Harry who used to be a rival basketball player. Ron and Harry never had a good relationship though they often pretended to be friends. Thelma Harrison is Ron’s wife. She developed a relationship with Harry and she has been his mistress. Cindy Murket is another woman whom Harry lusted for during his younger days. Ruth is another woman with whom Harry had an extramarital affair and he impregnated her but left her without confirming if she gave birth to their child or not. Harry often wonders about that child. Annabella is the nurse treating Harry at the hospital in Florida and he suspects that Annabella is his and Ruth’s daughter.

Summary of Rabbit at Rest:

The story is set in the late 1980s, just before the decade of the 1990s. Harry Angstrom is now 55 years old. He never had good relationships with his wife Janice yet, they managed to continue their marriage for 33 years despite all odds. Their son Nelson is grown up now and he is married to Pru. He completed his graduation from Kent University. Harry got the ownership and management of Toyota Dealership in Brewer, Pennsylvania in inheritance after the death of his father-in-law. However, since his wife Janice was the actual owner, she decided to hand over the business to their son Nelson, forcing Harry to retire from business. Harry was not in favor of allowing Nelson to control the business but he couldn’t oppose Janice. Nelson is drug addicted and instead of paying attention to the business, he often siphons off money from business to his drug addiction. Harry knows about it and remains pensive and depressed about the future. Nelson continues to ruin the business and ultimately, he loses the Toyota Dealership.

After retirement, he has grown fat and because of almost no work, he is leading an unhealthy life and often remains depressed. He is addicted to eating snacks and fails to control himself. During the cold season, Harry and Janice retreat to Florida, and then they return during the summer. However, Harry doesn’t have a good relationship with Nelson and thus he often spends his time in Florida. He is very close to his granddaughter Judy who is now a growing-up teenager, turning out to be a beautiful lady. Harry feels that while Judy is becoming a responsible adult, he can be a child again with her. His grandson Ron doesn’t like Harry much.

One day, during his stay in Florida, when Judy was with him, he goes for a fishing excursion. During their fishing excursion, Judy falls off the boat and Harry realizes that she doesn’t know how to swim. The accident reminds him of his dead daughter Rebecca who accidentally drowned in a bathtub during her infancy. At the same time, Harry suffers a heart attack. Harry is too fat to act swiftly but he gathers all his courage to save Judy from drowning even while succumbing to his failing heart, redeeming his earlier failure.

He is hospitalized in Florida where a nurse Annabella is assigned to take care of him. As Harry recuperates, he develops a rapport with Annabella who looks familiar to him. He starts suspecting that Annabella is his daughter from his extramarital affair with Ruth. He tries to know about Annabella’s past but fails to come to any conclusion. Meanwhile, he learns about the death of Thelma Harrison with whom he developed a relationship during his trip to Carrebean in which they engaged in wife-swapping activity. Thelma had been his mistress since then but she died of lupus. As Harry gains health, he returns to Brewer to join Thelma’s funeral. During the funeral, Thelma’s husband Ron confronts Harry about his extramarital affair with his wife. Harry had no answer but he succeeds in calming down Ron and then they resolve their dispute during a gold game. Harry also meets Cindy Murkett whom he always lusted for during his younger years. However, she has completely changed and now she is a fat angry woman whom Harry cannot appreciate.

Harry suffers more depression and questions if there is any motive for his life. The only solace he gets is in seeing Judy grow up into an impressive teenager.

As Nelson lost Toyota Dealership, the family suffers monetary problems. Harry is still ill while Janice forcibly sends Nelson to a Drug and Alcohol Rehabilitation center. Janice herself starts working as a real estate broker. Meanwhile,. Harry develops an illicit relationship with Pru who had been too troubled by Nelson’s carelessness and debauchery. While the family starts recuperating from the financial problems, Janice discovers the illicit relationship between Harry and Pru and gets too much angry. She knew about Ruth, Thelma, and Cindy, but she couldn’t bear the thought that Rabbit made a physical relationship with his daughter-in-law. Rabbit realizes his mistake but couldn’t face Janice out of his cowardice and decides to run back to Florida.

In Florida, Harry decides to develop a new enthusiasm toward life and starts exercising and improving his health. One day, he sees a local boy playing Basketball and it reminds him of his college days. He decides to challenge the boy and they engage in a game. Harry struggles but succeeds in winning the game but as soon as he shouts hurray for his win, he suffers a major heart attack.

While he is hospitalized, Janice and Nelson rush to Florida to take care of him. They reach the hospital in Florida at the time. Harry is still alive. He sees Janice and asks for forgiveness. Janice forgives him for cheating on her, and he and Nelson express their acceptance of each other. Rabbit dies peacefully, having repaired his most intimate relationships.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Mark of Vishnu by Khushwant Singh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was an Indian author, lawyer, politician, journalist, and short story writer. The Mark of Vishnu is a short story written by Khushwant Singh which was published in his short story collection The Mark of Vishnu and Other Stories in 1958. The story is a satire against superstitions and tradition while it also explores the inhumanity, lack of values, and a false sense of superiority of the modern people. The story specifically targets the idea of the sanctity of all life forms embedded in Hindu traditions.

Characters of The Mark of Vishnu:

The main character of the story is Gunga Ram, a poor illiterate Brahmin man working as a servant in a household. He is an honest, pious but superstitious man who believed that “all life was sacred, even if it was of a serpent or scorpion or centipede.” Obviously, he always supported Mahatma Gandhi’s call for Ahimsa. He is a man who cannot discriminate even against other animals and species and believes that every living being, human, or otherwise, deserves equal respect and love. The four boys of the household are the other ‘collective character’ of the story. They are all teenagers as they study in the high school. The boys are very proud and they often ridicule Ganga Ram and make fun of him for his lack of education and traditional ways. They believe he is very superstitious and they have nothing to do with the idea of Mahatma Gandhi, or Ahimsa. They have a sense of superiority over Ganga Ram because of his lack of education, and poverty. They believe that irrespective of being elder to them, Gunga Ram doesn’t deserve any respect because he is just a servant. Their behavior suggests that even the other elders of the house do not treat Ganga Ram well. The narrator is one of the boys. The other important character is a snake, King Cobra whom Gunga Ram calls Kala Nag that lives in a hole near the sidewall of the house. The snake is poisonous but it has never harmed anyone ever. Gunga Ram is aware of the snake and so are the boys. None of them are frightened by the snake. Gunga Ram respects the snake as a life form representing the trinity of gods Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh. The boys are playful, ill-mannered, and often cruel to Gunga Ram.

Summary of The Mark of Vishnu:

The story begins with an argument between Gunga Ram and the four boys. The narrator is one of the four boys who see Gunga Ram putting some milk in a saucer and placing it near the hole in the side wall where a big black king cobra is hiding. When the boys counter Gunga Ram and ask him why he is doing so, Gunga Ram answers that he daily offers milk to the Kala Nag, "Every night I leave it outside the hole near the wall and it’s gone by the morning," he says. The narrator abuses Gunga Ram and calls him stupid. The boys argue that it must be the cat that drinks the milk because a snake does not drink milk and even if it does, it cannot drink that much milk. Gunga Ram opposes them and says that no cat goes near the hole. The narrator tells him that they have observed many dead snakes in their school laboratory kept in the methylated spirit. He then tells him about the incident when their teacher bought an exotic snake that could run both ways and kept it in an empty jar and as the snake tried to escape, it got killed. Gunga Ram turns his eyes shut as he disliked the idea of murdering snakes just to keep them in jars for exhibition. Gunga Ram believed in the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the creator, preserver, and destroyer. He believed that all life forms are equally respectful and represent god. He was most devoted to Vishnu. He would often oppose the boys when they would kill little insects, wasps, centipedes, scorpions, or others for their fun. For Gunga Ram, all life was sacred, even if it was of a serpent or scorpion, or centipede.

The boys considered Gunga Ram as an illiterate, foolish, superstitious Brahmin. The narrator declares that they (the boys) will kill his Kala Nag as soon as they see him. Gunga Ram says that he won’t let them kill the snake. He tries to dissuade them by saying that the snake has laid 100 eggs and that if they kill the snake, the baby snakes will take revenge on them. However, the boys point out that the snake is a male and cannot lay eggs. They ridicule Gunga Ram and say that Gunga Ram himself might have laid those eggs.

The boys say that instead of killing the snake, they will catch it alive and send it to Bombay where it will be milked to create anti-venom. Gunga Ram retorts that he has never seen a snake with udders and a snake cannot be milked.

The boys had no idea of Hindu beliefs, nor had they ever heard of Mahatma Gandhi and his idea of Ahimsa. For them, killing insects, birds, and snakes is just a fun game. Gunga Ram had his own ideas. He believed that snakes are the most vile species of nature, and if one can love and respect them, they prove the point of the sanctity of all life forms.

After some days, it started raining with the arrival of Monsoon. All the holes and pits got filled with rainwater. The snake was forced to get out and search for another safer place. However, the boys noticed the snake moving out on the slippery muddy ground. They took bamboo sticks and attacked the snake, breaking its back. But they didn’t kill the snake. The back of the snake was brutally broken but its hood was undamaged as the boys didn’t wish to ruin it. They planned to take the snake to their school for an exhibition. They stored the injured snake in a tin of biscuit and tied it with a strong string and kept it under the bed.

Gunga Ram had no knowledge of their activity. When the boys saw him, they asked him if he will keep the milk for the snake again? Gunga Ram answered that he will, to which the boys objected that the snake won’t need any milk anyways. Gunga Ram got suspicious and asked why? The boys didn’t reveal that they have injured and captured the snake, but they said that it is raining and there are many frogs on the ground. The boys said that the snake must have eaten some frog. They further ridiculed Gunga Ram and said that your milk is tasteless as you never add any sugar to it.

The next morning, Gunga Ram noticed that the milk was still in the saucer as the snake didn’t drink. He got suspicious. The narrator said that he already knew that the snake likes frogs more than Gunga Ram’s milk. However, Gunga Ram’s suspicion was growing over the boys. He kept a close eye on the boys. As the boys got ready for school, they took the tin of biscuits in them and before they could get to the school, the narrator informed Gunga Ram that his Kala Nag is safe in the tin and they are taking it to their school where they will keep it in the methylated spirit for exhibition.

Gunga Ram was shocked. He couldn’t believe that the boys got the snake despite him trying everything to protect it.

The four brothers reach their school and announce their catch. They present the tin with the snake to their science teacher. The boys are celebrated as a set of four brothers known for their toughness who just caught a big ferocious King Cobra. The teacher kept the tin on his table and pretended to be indifferent. He gave some problems for the students to solve and started preparing for the unboxing of the Kala Nag. He took a set of forceps from a methylated jar in which a dead Krait was kept and then he carefully started untying the tin of biscuit.

As soon as the teacher untied the string, the snake loomed out of the tin with its ferocious eyes. The hood of Kala Nag was taught and undamaged and though the snake felt difficulty in moving, it ferociously hissed and targeted the teacher’s face. The teacher moved backward to save himself and toppled on his own chair and fell to the ground. The king cobra raised his hood and hissed again. The teacher was petrified and so were all the students who stood on their desks and started shouting hysterically. Kala Nag might have slipped away its back was not that damaged but it was not able to move much. Somehow, the King cobra got off the table and dragged painfully towards the door. Meanwhile, Gunga Ram reached the school and he was standing right at the door of the class of the four brothers when he saw the Kala Nag on the teacher’s table. He came there to somehow save the Kala Nag and he had the same saucer and a jar of milk in his hand. He poured the milk into the saucer up to its brim and then he placed the saucer in front of the king cobra. With hands folded in prayer, he bowed his head to the ground craving forgiveness. In desperate fury, the cobra hissed and spat and bit Gunga Ram all over the head—then with great effort dragged himself into a gutter and wriggled out of view. Gunga Ram was badly bitten. The snake was highly venomous and Gunga Ram got blinded instantly. In pain, he covered his eyes with his hands and groaned in agony. Within a few minutes, he turned pale. A blue froth started coming out of his mouth and soon he collapsed. On his forehead were little drops of blood. When the teacher wiped Gunga Ram’s forehead, he saw the V mark on which the snake had dug his fangs.

The story may appear as a satire on superstitions, as a story of a foolish superstitious Brahmin who lost his life because of his blind faith in the sanctity of all life forms. The story suggests that no matter how much you respect nature, the wrath of nature will harm you indifferently. However, the story also points out at the inhumanity of the modern belief system and the lost human values n modern times.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

London by Samuel Johnson | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Samuel Johnson’s first major published work was the poem titled London which was published in May 1738. Johnson published the poem anonymously and the writer of the poem remained unknown for at least 15 years. However, the poem attained a huge fame and fan following. Alexander Pope liked the poem too much and tried everything to know about the actual writer of the poem but failed to know about him. Samuel Johnson imitated the Roman poet Juvenal’s third satire for this poem partly because he liked Juvenal and partly because he was following the trend of imitating Augustan poets during that period. Samuel Johnson criticizes the corruption, crimes, and poverty of the city of London in this poem. He uses the main character Thales to do so as Thales leaves for Wales to escape the problems of London. The poem had political connotations, criticizing the Whigs government headed by Sir Robert Walpole.

Structure of London:

It is an imitation of the Third satire of the Roman poet Juvenal in which Juvenal’s hero Umricius leaves Rome because of corruption and hypocrisy. Samuel Johnson’s hero is Thales who leaves London for Wales because of corruption, crime, and poverty. Johnson’s friend Richard Savage also left England and settled in Wales but Johnson made it clear that it was just a coincidence and the hero of the poem London imitates Juvenal’s Umricius. Furthermore, Johnson’s hero is named after the great Greek mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher from Miletus, Thales. It is a rather long poem with 263 lines. The first 34 lines are spoken by the narrator who remains anonymous while the other 229 lines are solely spoken by Thales, the hero of Samuel Johnson’s poem.

Analysis of London:

Samuel Johnson himself was working as a grub writer during his time in London and he had the experience of corruption in that emerging market firsthand. He reached London in 1737 and started working for The Gentlean’s Magazine. Parliamentary reporting was banned during the period as Sir Robert Walpole who had dominated British politics since taking over as the de facto Prime Minister successfully suppressed dissent through a mixture of brutality, bribery, and control of the print media. However, Samuel Johnson regularly contributed parliamentary reports such as "Debates of the Senate of Magna Lilliputia" for The Gentleman’s Magazine. John Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera became a huge hit which was a strong criticism of Walpole’s government. To control and avoid such criticism, the government passed the Stage Licensing Act of 1737 called for theater managers to submit all plays for government approval in advance of the performance. This also affected Johnson whose play Irene failed to get patrons and wasn’t staged till 1749. London manages to critique the Walpole regime indirectly and through coded references, but contemporary readers, particularly those in sympathy with the opposition, were readily able to see how the poem mocked Walpole’s reign as corrupt.

Summary of London:

The poem begins with a Latin epitaph directly taken from Juvenal’s Third Satire which can be loosely translated as “Who can endure this monstrous city, who is so iron-willed can bear it.”

Lines 1-4

The poem begins as the narrator expresses his frustration and sorrow at the state of London that has been deteriorated by the current government (headed by Sir Robert Walpole). However, the narrator praises his friend Thales as he is leaving London. At first, the narrator is confused about whether he should be sorry or should he be happy? Ultimately, he appreciates his friend Thale’s foresightedness in leaving London which, indeed, is a land of corruption. However, he is sad as he will lose a close friend.

Lines 5-8

The narrator informs that Thales is moving to a faraway place free from corruption. The air is purer in that countryside. Thales is moving to Wales, or Cambria, which is the ancient name of Wales. The narrator is happy that his friend Thales will be able to pay his homage to St. David at Cambria and then he will be able to live a peaceful happy life. In Juvenal’s Third Satire, Umricius leaves Rome to settle in Cumae in Southern Italy, the homeland of the Cumaean prophetess.

Lines 9-18

In these lines, the narrator depicts the corruption and poverty in London. He says that nobody will prefer to stay in London unless he has been bribed to do so. People will prefer to go to Ireland (Hibernia is the ancient name), or they will go to Scotland instead of living in London. The streets of London are full of malice, hypocrisy, and conspiracies. People in London never die untimely unless they are starving and it is too often. The narrator says that London is marred by ruffians or burglars who steal the properties of others, otherwise, people lose their belonging to fires and arson. The streets of London aren’t safe and ruffians often rob passersby. In addition, the lawyers of London are no less than ruffians and they continue to prey upon their clients. The houses of London are so congested and dilapidated that it appears they may fall at any time. The narrator wonders who would prefer to live in such a city?

Lines 19-34

In these lines, the narrator and Thales are waiting for a rowing boat on the bank of the river that will take Thales to the sea vessel. The wherry will pass through Greenwich state where Queen Elizabeth I took birth. The narrator praises Elizabeth I as a glorious and just ruler.

Lines 35-98

The speaker changes from line 35 onwards. Thales is the narrator of all these lines. He remembers his time in London and says that nobody wants to ever return to those shady cursed walls behind which people shamelessly commit vices and only think of personal gain. He says that those people in London who have devoted their lives to science, art, and knowledge, are wasting their time because there is no one in London to appreciate them. He prays to the almighty to let him find a better, happier place than London. Thales remembers that in the past when Germanic tribes attacked Britons, they took refuge in Wales. Thales says that he may remain poor in Wales too but he will be at peace. Thales criticizes those people who get a pension from the government in London and in return, they are expected to say nothing against the tyranny and corruption. He then says that the people taking the government’s pension are those who can take people’s rights away. The government is no longer the people’s government because it is pleading with pirates who will make the country hollow one day.

He then targets the Licensing Act of 1737 and says that the people in power can do anything because none can stop them from doing what they think is right. No one can restrain them in any manner. He further criticizes colonialism and says that the rulers of London take all the plundered money from colonies while the colonies suffer poverty and so do the common people of London. Thales declares that he cannot tolerate such corruption and hence he is unable to live in London. He tells his friend, the previous narrator, that though these politicians rose to power with their lies and sweet talks, he is rustic, truthful, and innocent, and hence, he cannot deceive someone or do something wrong.

Thales then names the first Duke of Marlborough and says that the people who take pensions from the government are inclined towards him who is known for his avarice. Similarly, the second Duke of Buckingham continues to squander people’s money. Thales say that such politicians are the real villains and enemy of London.

Lines 99-165

Thales praises the past of London when King Edward III was the ruler who was a successful commander. He says that London used to be the land of heroes and saints but now the people of London have become thoughtless. The people of England are no longer artful, valuable, fluent, and flexible. The bad rulers have made their country weaker in comparison to the foreign powers. He criticizes contemporary art forms and praises the rule of Henry IV when divine harmony existed in the country. Thales then satirizes the contemporary artists who only imitate the works of others and borrow their ideas to present them as their own. He says that only those artists thrive who follow the government are as corrupt as the government itself. He says that in London, only spineless slaves can live who feel no guilt in their slavery and they celebrate vices. Thales says that several crimes are daily committed in London but the most shameful crime is that of poverty. The biggest vice and crime is to be poor.

Lines 166-223

In these lines, Thales says that London is a place where the innocent is harrassed and ridiculed to such an extent that he feels distressed. Innocent and pure people are wounded to such an extent that they cannot heal ever. Despite their purity and innocence, the corrupt but rich people scorn them and say that they are so poor that it is seldom that there is a place reserved for them in heaven.

Thales then urges common innocent people to get together and rise against oppression and tyranny but then, he notices that poverty will not let them rise. He says that the government has groomed flatterers by giving them pensions. These flatterers praise all the vices and corrupt moves of the government. Thales then addresses the corrupt rulers and tells them that they rose to power from the same ground and after collecting so much wealth, they must look down on the poor people and help them. They should give food to the one who is starving instead of leading him to death.

Then Thales says to his friend that neither the flatterers will listen to his advice, nor the rulers will change their corrupt, cruel ways. He says that one day, the common public will come to know how much wealth these flatterers have amassed but then he says that it will change nothing but will further put salt to the wounds of the poor public.

He says that the corrupt flatterers pretend to be proud and honorable but they are not. Because if they are honorable, they should pay their gratitude to the public by refunding the property they have seized by corrupt means. But they wouldn’t do so. Thales again criticizes the Licensing Act of 1737 and says that the rulers and flatterers control all and they are looking forward to increasing their control. They are not ready to listen to any criticism.

Lines 224-263

After mentioning the ills of rulers and flatterers, Thales says that he just wishes to keep away from the follies of these people. He says that some people of respect in London often taunt him but those who pretend to be heroes of London are actual backstabbers. They act like gang leaders and lords of the streets. They rob common people and kill others for their money. He says that one should just close their doors as soon as he sees such people. Thales says that the rulers and people in power are cruel with no sense of guilt. They can kill anyone at any time and then they will attend the funeral of the same person as if they did nothing wrong. Thales says that these politicians think of nothing but how to increase their votes. They do nothing for the improvement of the country and enjoy all their time at the home of their mistresses. Thales then remembers and praises the reign of King Alfred the Great when the crime was so low that only a single jail was enough for all the criminals and that too often remained empty. King Alfred used to do fair justice. In his time there were no hypocrites, and he didn’t pay anyone to make them obey him. The special juries were not there in Alfred’s time. But now, the government has appointed special juries. The wealthier people and flatterers are the jurists and the government uses them to get their work done in the courts. Thales claims that the legal system of London is totally corrupt.

In the last stanza, Thales says to his friend that he is now going to the rustic Kent because he is tired of the corruption and tricks of the city and he knows that being innocent, he cannot survive the city life. In the last line, the poet Thales says that this is a satire that helped him in animating or bringing to life, whatever he wished to say about London.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected to the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Metzengerstein by Edgar Allan Poe | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Edgar Allan Poe was an American poet, novelist, short stories writer, editor, and literary critic who is known for his works in the genre of Dark Romanticism. He was the first American writer to earn a living through writing alone. He is considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and he also contributed to the emerging genre of science fiction. Edgar was born on January 19, 1809, and he died on October 7, 1849. He openly opposed the literary movement of Transcendentalism. Metzengerstein was the first published short story written by Edgar Allan Poe which was published in the Philadelphian magazine Saturday Courier on January 14, 1832. The subtitle of the story is “A Tale in Imitation of the German” It is a horror short story of the dark romantic genre with all essential gothic fiction conventions such as a hereditary feud between two ancient families, a gloom-drenched castle, a cryptic curse, and vaguely sinister machinations. Metzengerstein can also be categorized as a ghost story. The epigraph of the story is "Living I have been your plague, dying I shall be your death," which was taken from a Latin quote by Martin Luther.

Characters of Metzengerstein:

The story is told in a third-person narrative style. The narrator is an unnamed unknown person who tells the story of Frederick von Metzengerstein who belongs to a rich royal German family. He is the only surviving heir of Metzengerstein and he is just 18 years old. Despite being so young, he is known for his cruel ways. He becomes the youngest and cruelest Baron of the Metzengerstein family. Wilhelm von Berlifitzing is the 80-year-old Baron of the Berlifitzing family who is known for his vindictive nature. He is the only surviving Berlifitzing member. The two families are fighting each other since times unknown. Nobody knows the actual reason behind the animosity of these families. However, there is an old popular saying that suggests an ominous prophecy that “A lofty name shall have a fearful fall when, as the rider of his horse, the mortality of Metzengerstein shall triumph over the immortality of Berliftizing.”

Summary of Metzengerstein:

The story is set in Hungary which used to be a part of Greater Germany in the past. Though the story belongs to an unspecified point of time, it appears to be a story belonging to the 15th or 16th century when the belief in reincarnation was popular in Europe. The unknown narrator introduces the two proud families f Germany, the Metzengerstein and the Berlifitzing. Frederick Mertzengerstein is 18 years old and he is the only surviving member of the Metzengerstein family. He is known as a cruel and angry young man. Wilhelm von Berlifitzing is 80 year old only surviving member of the Berlifitzing family.

On his 18th birthday, Frederick von Metzengerstein has been announced the Baron of Metzengerstein estate. Just four days after his ascension to his family’s seat, a fire breaks out in the stable of the rival Berlifitzing family killing all their horses. One of the guards also burns alive when he tries to save some horses. It is rumored that Frederick von Metzengerstein is responsible for the arson. It becomes known that the guard who was burnt was Wilhelm Berifitzing himself and thus, there is no heir of the Berlifitzing estate now. This is a moment of triumph for Frederick Metzengerstein. It appears that the old saying is coming to its truth.

At his home, Frederick is occupied with studying an old tapestry that describes the prophetic legend: a gigantic, flame-colored Berlifitzing horse whose rider has been stabbed in the back by a Metzengerstein. In a moment of horror, he thinks he sees the horse in the tapestry move: bending over its dead master in mourning, eyes gleaming red, and its “disgusting and sepulchral” teeth bared. A messenger arrives and informs that a horse survived in the stable of Berlifiting. Frederick rises up from his study table abruptly and rushes to see the horse. As he rises up, his shadow is that of the Metzengerstein assassin depicted on the tapestry.

Frederick learns that the servants of Berlifitzing do not recognize this horse but the horse has the initials ‘W.v.B’ branded on his head. Frederick and others believe that this must have been the personal and most loved horse of Wilhelm von Berlifitzing. Frederick decides to keep the horse as his personal trophy for winning against the rival family. The horse is monstrously large and violent and everyone else fails to control the horse. The horse has an unnatural shade of orange with ominous dark red eyes and repellent teeth as depicted in the tapestry. Frederick ignores all these ominous signs and enjoys his victory. He is too engrossed by the horse, this victory trophy. He spends all his time with the horse, riding it in the countryside. Gradually, he starts ignoring his business affairs and duties. His only motive is to gain complete control over the horse. His obsession with the horse frightens the locals of his estate who believe that Frederick has gone insane.

One day, Frederick wakes up early in the morning and takes his new horse galloping off to the countryside. After some time, an accidental fire engulfs the stable of Metzengerstein's estate. The stable keepers try to control the fire but all their efforts fail. At last, they decide to save as many horses as they could by fleeing the horses free. However, while doing so, they notice a horseman furiously running towards the stable on fire. They observe that the horse is running too fast and the horseman is totally disoriented. It becomes clear that the horseman has completely lost control over the horse and his legs are entangled with the strings of the horse in such a way that he cannot free himself. They try to stop the horse but the horse leaps towards the fire and the horse and rider both are swallowed up by the raging flames. As soon as the horse and the horseman go down the wreckage, the fire extinguishes on the ground and the flames continue to rise up to the timbers. All the people gather to look for the horse and the horseman but they find nothing. Soon they notice the fire color of smoke rising above the stable and iittakes the shape of a fierce horse. The Metzengerstein family has no heir now.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Rabbit is Rich by John Updike | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Rabbit is Rich was the third novel of the Rabbit series by John Updike that was published in 1981. The novel is the sequel to Rabbit Redux and Rabbit, Run, and the prequel to the fourth and final novel Rabbit Remembered. The story of Rabbit is Rich is set in the late 1970s. The novel by John Updike exactly informs what the aging, late-20th-century industrial East of the US was like in sight, smell, sound, and social economy.

The series began with Rabbit, Run telling the story of Harry Angstrom in his late 20s. He used to be a star basketball player but ended up with a boring job as a salesman. He got married to Janice only because she got pregnant. Frustrated with life in his hometown of Brewer, Pennsylvania, Harry meets a young girl, Ruth, pregnant, but leaves her before finding out whether she kept the child; his wife Janice drunkenly and accidentally drowns their newborn daughter in the bathtub. In the second novel, Rabbit Redux, Nelson grows into a teenage boy. He falls in love with Jill, a Hppie girl from a rich Connecticut family who starts living at Rabbit’s house as Janice leaves him for another man Charlie. Their house is burnt down and Jill dies in the fire. Nelson blames Harry for her death and grows to hate him while Janice decides to return to her husband and son. Rabbit is 46 years old now and he is worried about Nelson who is 22 years old now. Rabbit decided to leave pregnant Ruth for the sake of Nelson and Janice, but now when Nelson is a grown-up man, he wonders if he took the right decision as he craves a daughter.

Characters of Rabbit is Rich:

Harry ‘Rabbit’ Angstorm is a 46 years old middle-aged man who inherited a Toyota dealership from his father-in-law. He is leading a rich affluent life. As his home was burnt down, he lives at Janice’s father's house. Bessie is Rabbit’s widowed mother-in-law. Angstorm faces issues because of his libido. He had an extramarital affair with Ruth who got pregnant. Rabbit decided to leave Ruth for his wife Janice and son Nelson who was 4 years old then. During the same time, Janice accidentally drowned their infant girl child in the bathtub. Rabbit is not aware if Ruth gave birth to that child. Nelson is 24 years old now. He still blames Harry for the death of Jill, the Hippie girl from Connecticut who got burned to death when Harry’s home was set on fire. Nelson is studying at Kent State University but he is aimless, confused, and indecisive. Charlie Stravos is the man with whom Janice had a short extramarital affair but she returned to Rabbit and Nelson after some time. Now Charlie works with Harry at the Toyota Dealership as a partner and he is a good friend of Harry. Melanie is a college friend of Nelson. Pru is Nelson’s fiancee whom nobody knows until she arrives in Brewer, Pennsylvania. Thelma is the wife of one of Rabbit’s friends.

Summary of Rabbit is Rich:

It is the summer of 1979. Rabbit has settled with Janice at her father’s house as his house since their house burned down. The Hippie girl Jill from Connecticut was burned to death in that accident. Nelson blamed his father for her death and never forgave him. He is 20 years now and studying at Kent State University. Harry inherited the ownership of the Toyota Dealership in Brewer, Pennsylvania after the death of his father-in-law. Janice’s mother Bessy is living with Harry and Janice. Charles Stravos is now a good friend and partner of Harry Angstrom as they both work for the Toyota dealership. Janice had a short affair with Charles but that ended up. Despite being rich, Harry’s life is troubled. He often hears the sound of his dead daughter Rebecca and his dead mother. He still remembers Jill and Skeeter and often dreams about hugging them in the heavens.

One day, a young man and a 20 years old girl visit their shop and Harry takes them on a test drive. Harry feels familiar with the girl and wonders if she is his daughter from the relationship with Ruth. He still misses Rebecca, his and Janice’s daughter who was drowned by accident. When he reaches home, he finds a letter from Nelson informing him that he is returning from college with one of his friends named Melanie. Rabbit is confused and wonders why Nelson is leaving his studies midway.

After some days, Harry takes Janice to a country club to have some fun but they get a message in the club to return home as Nelson arrives with Melanie on the same day. Melanie greets Harry and Janice warmly but notices that Nelson doesn’t have a good rapport with his father. He still blames Harry for the death of Jill who was his first crush.

Charlie is getting old and Nelson takes his job at the Toyota dealership while Melanie gets a job at a local restaurant. Harry takes Charlie to that restaurant to meet Melanie and they develop a good friendship with her. Nelson is not too happy with Harry being friendly with Melanie. He takes Harry’s car for a drive and meets an accident scratching his car.

Harry is still wondering about the girl whom he gave a test drive. He wonders if she really is Ruth’s and his daughter. He decides to go to Galilee where Ruth is living nowadays and questions her about their child. However, he fails to gather enough courage to face Ruth and question her and thus he returns back right from the front of her house.

After his return, Janice and Bessie make a plan with him to go to Pocanos for a vacation while leaving the Toyota dealership under the management of Nelson. In Harry’s absence, Nelson decides to buy two convertibles and hopes that Harry would appreciate that as a beneficial deal. When Rabbit returns, he disagrees with the purchase and argues that convertibles require a lot of gasoline and since the economy of Brewer isn’t doing well, not many people will prefer buying convertibles. This frustrates Nelson and in his anger he deliberately crashes one of the convertibles into another, destroying both. Harry is pensive about Nelson’s rash and unpredictable behavior. Charles soothes Nelson and Harry both.

One day, when Janice and Harry were again having a fun time at the country club, they get a message that a pregnant girl named Pru has arrived at their home and she says that she is the fiancee of Nelson. Nelson never talked about this girl and Janice and Harry believed that Melanie was Nelson’s girlfriend. Harry goes to the shop first and talks with Nelson. He asks him about Pru to which Nelson admits that he impregnated her. Harry says that he will support Nelson if he agrees to marry Pru to which Nelson happily agrees. Harry and Janice plan for their marriage and Nelson and Pru get married a few days later. After their marriage, Harry again finds himself wondering about the girl whom he offered a test drive. He decides to go to Galilee again and confront Ruth. When he reaches Ruth’s house, a pet dog startles him and he runs back from there.

Harry takes Janice and Pru to a dancing party where Pru falls during the dance and breaks her arms. She soon gives birth to a healthy baby despite all concerns. While the business at the Toyota dealership is lukewarm because of the weak economy, Harry decides to invest some money in gold Krugerrands and eventually sells them for silver coins, making a good profit. His profits offer him a chance to buy his own home and he and Janice decide to move out of Bessie’s house and settle in their own. But they find it difficult to convince Bessie to leave her age-old house and shift to the new house with Janice and Harry.

Harry takes Janice on a tour of the Caribbean with their friends from the country club. On the very first evening, one of their friends suggests that they should swap wives and enjoy some time with the wives of others. Everyone agrees with the suggestion. Rabbit lusts after Cindy, the lovely young wife of one of their new country-club friends but he fails to get her as he is chosen to be paired with Thelma Harrison by a lottery system. Though he is disappointed at first, he spends a good night with Thelma who introduces him to anal sex. Rabbit enjoys the experience and convinces himself that he will get another chance with Cindy. The next morning, he and Janice get a message that Nelson has run away from the home and they decide to go back to Brewer.

Harry and Janice soothe Pru who is worrisome about Nelson. Harry decides to go to Galilee again and this time, he manages to knock on the doors of Ruth’s house. Ruth gets offended by seeing him. When he asks about the child, she informs him that after he left her for Janice, she decided to abort the child. Though she confirms that the girl whom he offered a test drive is her daughter from a subsequent happy marriage, she is disgusted at Harry’s insinuation that she could be his daughter.

At home, Janice succeeds in convincing Bessie that they should move to the new house that Harry bought. Bessie, Janice, and Pru decide to move to the new house on a Superbowl Sunday. Harry gets a postcard from Nelson on the same day informing him that Nelson decided to reenroll in Kent State University and complete his degree. The card further tells that Melanie is with Nelson and he will need money for readmission to the University. Harry tells Pru and Janice about this but finds that Pru is not disturbed by knowing that Nelson is with Melanie. Janice takes Bessie to show her the new house while Pru places her baby girl on Rabbit’s lap. Having lost both the daughters he could have had, Harry takes joy from this new granddaughter that life has given him.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Karma by Khushwant Singh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was known for his short stories. He won fame as a journalist as well as a fiction writer. ‘With Malice Towards One and All’ was a very popular weekly newspaper column penned by him that used to be published in all leading English newspapers of India occupying two full-length columns on the editorial page of the Saturday edition. In addition, he also worked as the editor of the Indian magazine The Illustrated Weekly of India. In 1989, his short stories collection titled The Collected Stories was published which was republished with some additions and a new title The Collected Short Stories of Khushwant Singh in 2005.

Karma is a short story by Khushwant Singh that was first published in 1989 in his first story collection and was republished in 2005. Through this story, Khushwant Singh exemplifies the age-old adage, ‘Pride comes before a Fall.’ The story is about concerns regarding cultural identity.

Characters of Karma by Khushwant Singh:

Mohan Lal is a middle-aged Indian man in his late forties. He works for the British Indian government as a barrister. He got his education from Oxford, Britain and he is an anglophile. An anglophile is a person who appreciates English culture, the English language, and the English people. However, Mohan Lal is more than an anglophile. He imitates English people in his behavior and is disgusted by native Indian culture and people. He feels inferior being an Indian. Hence Mohan Lal endeavors to change himself completely in favoring the habits of Englishmen. Lachmi is his wife who is a fat 45 years old lady. She has been a loyal wife to Mohan Lal but now she has lost all her physical charm. She is a native Indian woman who, unlike Mohan Lal, appreciates and adheres to her Indian cultural roots with pride. She is a traditional Indian woman belonging to a poor family. She is illiterate in terms of English. Despite her being a devoted housewife, her married life is not good with Mohan Lal as he doesn’t appreciate anything Indian and thus, they do not have any kids. Mohan Lal treats her as his submissive and often remains disrespectful towards her. A bearer serves beverages to the travelers in the first-class waiting room of the railway station. There is a coolie on the railway platform who helps Lachmi get on the train with her luggage. Bill and Jim are two British soldiers who consider Indians inferior slaves with no rights.

Summary of Karma:

Mohan Lal is an Indian Barrister working for the British Indian government. He is a rich and powerful man who got his education at Oxford University London where he spent five years of his life. He became so impressed by the English culture, English language, and English people that after returning to India, he seldom talked in Hindustani and always preferred to speak in English. However, he was married to a traditional Hindu girl belonging to a poor and illiterate family. It was a mismatch and Mohan Lal, who loves only English people and English things, failed to make any cordial relationship with his wife Lachmi. In India, Mohan Lal is surrounded by Indian people who don’t value the customs and lifestyle that he actually loves and thus, he alienates himself from the surrounding world and his own wife. Lachmi used to be a beautiful, devoted but ignored wife. However, she always performed her duties as a housewife. Since Mohan Lal had no interest in her, they do not have any kids. Because of her husband’s neglect and loneliness, Lachmi who loves to talk failed to maintain herself and now she is a fat unimpressive middle-aged woman. Mohan Lal completely alienates himself from his wife. He doesn’t have any mutual sexual relationship with her and he even doesn’t live with her anymore. While she lived on the second floor of the house, while he was on the ground floor. Mohan Lal hardly stayed with her for some moment. Even when he used to approach her, he would use anglicized Hindustani to instruct her and she would obediently follow his instructions. Lachmi had no inclination to learn the English ways and this further alienated Mohan Lal from her. For Mohan Lal, Lachmi represented a typical Indian, submissive while he always found himself to be closer to English people, the rulers. He maintained this charade even during their travels. While Mohan Lal prefers to travel in the first-class compartment of trains, which is often exclusive for British people, he makes Lachmi travel through the general second-class Janana boogies meant for Indian women. Lachmi has her own reason as she says, “I am unable to communicate in English and am unfamiliar with their customs, so I stick to my janana inter-class.”

His ‘illiterate’ relatives and ‘dirty, vulgar countrymen’ are irrelevant to him. But because of his alienation, he is filled with sadness and frustration, There’s hardly any sex and love in his life and he has no friends. He always carries the English daily The Times, English wine, and English cigarettes in a handsome gold case, all of which serve to impose an Englishness on himself. He is perpetually ready to express the long-repressed “five years of grey bags and gowns, of sports blazers and mixed doubles, of dinners at Court inns and nights with Piccadilly prostitutes.” While no Englishman will listen to him, he wouldn’t talk with petty poor Indians who hardly know any English.

The story begins as Mohan Lal and his wife Lachmi are traveling. They are at a railway station. As scheduled before, Mohan Lal is waiting for the train in the First Class waiting room of the railway station where he observes the mirror is too dirty and old. He thinks that the mirror must have been made in India and that is why it is inefficient, dirty, and indifferent. Mohan Lal himself takes good care of his physique and prefers to be called Sir by others as if he is knighted. He sees himself in the same mirror and says that unlike the mirror he is distinguished, handsome, and efficient. He had a neatly-trimmed mustache and was wearing an expensive suit. He calls the bearer and asks for a peg of beverage. After serving him, the bearer sees that his luggage was kept along the wall. The bearer observes a middle-aged woman sitting on a small grey steel trunk. The bearer approaches her and asks if he could help her. The woman is Lachmi. She answers that she is with her master. She is a short, fat woman wearing a dirty white saree with a red border and a diamond nose ring, and several gold bangles. She is chewing a betel leaf.

While Mohan Lal continues to wait for the train in the First Class waiting room, Lachmi calls for a coolie and asks him where the Jnana bogie will stop. The coolie informs that Janana Bogie will stop at the back end of the platform. Soon they hear the signal and the bell sound which symbolizes that the train is approaching. Lachmi hurries up towards the back end of the platform while the coolie picks up the luggage of Lachmi and by following the coolie, Lachmi walks to the end of the platform to get a seat in Janana's compartment. They both reached the end of the platform. Meanwhile, Lachmi opened her brass lunch - box and eats her meal, chapattis, and mango pickle. After taking some food, she again starts chewing a betel leaf. Meanwhile, she starts talking with the coolie. She likes talking but at home, she often remains lonely and thus she talks with the coolie enthusiastically. As the train arrives at the platform, Lachmi washes her hands and enters the Janana compartment. The coolie shifts her luggage into the compartment and Lachmi offers him two annas for his help.

Mohan Lal is standing at the other end of the platform where the First Class compartment stopped. He too takes the help of a coolie to pick up his luggage. He finds no one in the compartment as there hardly are any English passengers while Indian passengers are supposed to travel in the second class compartment. As he ventures out of the window, he sees two English soldiers approaching the train. Mohan Lal feels elated seeing them and asks the train guard to invite the two soldiers to travel with him in the first-class compartment while he is willing to pay their fare. However, Mohan Lal soon realizes that he is no more than a nigger to those soldiers who despise him. The soldiers are Bill and Jim. They enter the First Class Compartment and start admonishing Mohan Lal and asking him how dare he enter the first class compartment? They order him to get out or they will throw him away. Mohan Lal tries to reason with them and tells them that despite being an Indian, he has totally acclimatized to the English way of living and has spent five years in Oxford. The Englishmen refuse to entertain him. They pick up Sir Mohan’s suitcase and throw it onto the platform. After that, they throw his thermos flask, briefcase, bedding, and a copy of The Times. Mohan Lal shouts in protest again, hoarse with rage, ‘Preposterous, preposterous,’ only to be slapped and thrown from the train. As Mohan Lal is pushed down off the train on the platform, he reels behind and trips on his bedding, and falls down on the suitcase. He is badly hurt and takes time to stand again. Meanwhile, the train starts moving. Mohan Lal sees the last bogie passing away from the platform which happened to be the Janana compartment. Lachmi was sitting there near the side window. As the train leaves the platform, Lachmi spits out the betel leaf she was chewing. Mohan Lal watches her going away while she fails to notice him. Still believing that her husband is traveling in the first-class compartment that he prefers, she leaves the railway station.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

Samuel Johnson | Early Works and A Dictionary of the English Language

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Samuel Johnson was an English author, poet, playwright, biographer, critic, and lexicographer whose work A Dictionary of the English Language was published on 15 April 1755. Samuel Johnson was born on 18^th September 1709. He was a weak child as an infant and suffered scrofula that disfigured his face. At the age of seven, he attended Lichfield Grammar School where he learned English grammar and excelled in Latin language. At the same time, he got ill with Tourette Syndrome and started exhibiting tics. Despite his illnesses, he continued to excel in his studies and got admission to higher school. At the age of 19, Johnson entered Pembroke College, Oxford. During his college days, he translated Alexander Pope’s poem Messiah in Latin and it became his first published work in December 1728. Johnson couldn’t complete his college degree because of a lack of funds and was forced to leave Pembroke College without a degree. His father died in December 1731 when Johnson was 22 years old. Since he didn’t have a degree he found it hard to get a job. Eventually, he started working as an undermaster in a school. In 1732, Samuel Johnson started contributing to The Birmingham Journal whose publisher Thomas Warren helped him in publishing the translation of Jerónimo Lobo's account of the Abyssinians. During the same time, Johnson married Elizabeth Tette, a widow 20 years older. His wife helped him in opening his own school in 1735 but the venture was unsuccessful and cost Tetty a substantial portion of her fortune. In 1737, Johnson finished his first playwright titled Irene but couldn’t find a patron and hence the play was not performed until 1749. Samuel Johnson loved his wife but he felt guilty about living almost entirely on Tette's money,

The Gentleman’s Magazine:

He came to London in 1737 and started working for The Gentleman’s Magazine which became his first regular work. The Gentleman’s Magazine was a weekly periodical that was founded by Edward Cave in 1731. The full title of the periodical was The Gentleman's Magazine: or, Trader's monthly intelligencer. It was a weekly periodical but Cave used the term Magazine for the first time for his journal. Magazine means storehouse and Cave used it to denote his journal as the compact store of all the news and commentary on any topic the educated public might be interested in. Johnson joined The Gentleman’s Magazine in 1737 and soon became the major contributor. It was a period when Parliamentary reporting was banned. Yet, Johnson regularly contributed parliamentary reports as "Debates of the Senate of Magna Lilliputia". Though they reflected the positions of the participants, the words of the debates were mostly Johnson's own. He coined the term Columbia for America which first appeared in a 1738 weekly publication of the debates of the British Parliament in The Gentleman’s Magazine.

Despite finding regular work as a reporter for The Gentleman’s Magazine, Samuel Johnson could not earn enough. Thus he decided to leave Tetty as he didn’t wish to continue being a financial burden for her. During this time, he became a close friend of Richard Savage and together, they started working at the Grub Street of London as writers who anonymously supplied publishers with on-demand material. In 1739, Samuel Johnson anonymously published his poem titled London which was his first major work. The poem contains 263 lines in which Johnson imitated Juvenal's Third Satire, expressed by the character of Thales as he decides to leave London for Wales. Johnson was an admirer of Alexander Pope and he was following the trend of imitating Augustan poets headed by Alexander Pope. However, even Alexander Pope didn’t know about the author of the poem. In this poem, Johnson portrayed London as a place of crime, corruption, and poverty.

Richard Savage was a close friend of Alexander Pope too. Savage died in the debtor’s prison due to the failure of the liver. After his death, Samuel Johnson published a biography titled Life of Savage in 1744 whose full title was An Account of the Life of Mr Richard Savage, Son of the Earl Rivers. It was the first major full biography written and published by Samuel Johnson. The biography was later included in Johnson’s major work Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets which was first published in 1779. In this work, Johnson published short biographies of 5 English poets including Abraham Cowley, John Milton, John Dryden, John Gay, Thomas Tickell, Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, and others.

Samuel Johnson still hadn’t received a degree from Oxford and when he asked Swift to favor him in getting a degree from the University of Dublin, Swift declined to help him. While Samuel Johnson succeeded in attaining an honorary degree from Pembroke College, Oxford, he harbored certain prejudices against Jonathan Swift which is evident from his account of Jonathan Swift in The Lives of The Poets.

By 1744, Jonathan Swift had made a place for himself as a distinguished Grub Street author. In 1746, Jonathan Swift got a proposal for writing an authoritative dictionary of the English language. Jonathan Swift claimed that he will complete the dictionary within three years. However, it took eight years for him to complete the dictionary. Yet, it was a great achievement because, during the same time, the Académie Française had 40 scholars spending 40 years completing their French dictionary. William Strahan and Associates were the printers of the dictionary that was completed and published in April 1755. Johnson alone wrote and produced this dictionary only with the clerical assistance of a few people he employed. However, as he continued to work for the dictionary at his own home, it deteriorated his relationship with his wife Tetty who got terminally ill during the same time. The original print of the dictionary contained 42,773 entries. Johnson illustrated the meanings of the words in the dictionary by literary quotation, of which there were approximately 114,000. The authors most frequently cited include William Shakespeare, John Milton, and John Dryden. Many of the quotations from Johnson’s dictionary are still used by various editions of the Webster's Dictionary and the New English Dictionary. Johnson’s dictionary was the most commonly used and imitated for the 150 years between its first publication and the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary in 1928.

American literary critic Walter Jackson Bate claimed that Johnson’s Dictionary was not just a simple dictionary but it is more than a reference book; it is a work of literature. According to him, the Dictionary "easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who labored under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time".

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!