The Portrait of a Lady by Khushwant Singh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was an Indian author, lawyer, diplomat, journalist, and politician who was awarded Padma Bhushan in 1974 and Padma Vibhushan in 2007. His first novel The Train to Pakistan was based on the Partition of India in 1947 and it proved to be his most renowned novel. In addition, he wrote many short stories. In 2013, a collection of his short stories was published which was titled “The Portrait of a Lady: Collected Stories.” This short story is autobiographical in which Khushwant Singh talked about his relationship with his grandmother during different phases of his life. He has beautifully drawn a pen- picture of her grandmother and describes the changes that came in their relationship after he went to the city and went abroad for higher studies. He pens down her daily activities and also describes her appearance creating an image in the reader’s mind. Ultimately, he describes her death.

Characters of The Portrait of a Lady:

The main character of the story is the grandmother of the narrator who happens to be the author of the story. She was a short, plump, and slightly bent, old lady with grey hair and a wrinkled face. She had a constant beautiful demeanor with a calm gentle and reassuring face. The narrator describes her as a “winter landscape in the mountains”. She was a religious lady who held her virtues. She spent most of her time in temples or reading scriptures and holy books. She had a beaded rosary and she never forgot to tell her prayers while counting the beads of the rosary. She had a deep connection with the narrator during his school days when he was in the village. But once the narrator and his family shifted to the city for his higher studies, he started spending lesser time with her. Gradually she became lonely. The narrator then went abroad for higher studies and his grandmother was left alone. She was very old and the narrator wasn’t sure if he will be able to see her again. But she kept living while spinning her charkha, feeding sparrows, and reciting her prayers. After five years, when the narrator returned, his grandmother welcomed him back by beating drums but soon she fell ill. It was her time to go.

Summary of The Portrait of a Lady:

The narrator informs that during his childhood, his parents were living in the city while he was staying at his parental village, living with his grandmother. His grandmother was a very strong and religious lady who never missed her prayer. She was very old with white hair that the narrator describes as silver locks. She was short, a little fatty, and slightly bent with a wrinkled face. The narrator had always seen her as an old woman and for him, it was difficult to imagine her in her younger days. The narrator’s grandfather is no more. He never saw him in person but he has seen his picture that hung above the mantelpiece in the drawing room. His grandfather used to wear loose clothes and in the picture, he too appears too old as if he is more than 100 years of age. He used to wear a big turban.

The narrator says that his grandmother had a bent back and she couldn’t walk straight but she always kept roaming around the house. While walking, she had to keep one hand on her waist while she always kept a beaded rosary in her other hand, continuously repeating her prayers.

The narrator says that her grandmother used to wear spotless white clothes and with her silver locks spread across her face, she used to appear like snowy mountains, true to her nature which was calm and content. The narrator had a good friendly relationship with his grandmother and when he was left with her in the village, she kept good care of her. She used to take him to the village school every day as it was very near to the village temple.

The grandmother routinely used to wake him up early in the morning and get him ready for school. Every day, she would take him to the school and while going to the school, they both sang prayers. The narrator loved her voice though he never learned the meaning of those prayers.

His grandmother was very careful about him and used to wash his slate and paint it with yellow chalk every day. She would then take an earthen pot with water and a reed pen. His grandmother used to give her stale chapatis with a little butter and sugar sprinkled over them for breakfast. While taking him to school, his grandmother would always keep some stale chapatis to feed the village dogs. The school was nearby the village temple and the priest was the teacher at the school. He would teach the alphabet and prayers to the children while the narrator’s grandmother used to spend her time in the temple, reading holy books.

As the narrator was growing old, his parents called them to the city so that he may pursue education at the municipality school in the city. As they shifted to the city, the relationship between the narrator and his grandmother became a bit distant because the municipality school was too far and she couldn’t go to the school with the narrator as he used to go with a motor bus. There were no dogs near their home so the grandmother started feeding sparrows and other birds.

The narrator was growing and he got busy with his education thus, they saw less of each other. Though she had immense interest in the narrator’s education, she could not help him in his lessons as he was learning English, the law of gravity, Archimedes’ principle, and many more such things which she could not understand. She often asked him what the teacher had taught him. She was displeased by knowing that they are not teaching religious scriptures at the school. The narrator once told that he was given music lessons she believed it to be indecent. To her, music had lewd associations and she considered music to be unsuitable for gentle folk.

After completing his school, the narrator went to the University for further studies. As he was growing older, he got a room of his own. This further alienated his grandmother. She didn’t complain but accepted her loneliness. She rarely spoke to anyone and spent most of her time in her room while spinning her charkha or reciting her prayers while counting the beads of her rosary. During the afternoon, she used to feed the sparrows. The sparrows had grown friendly to her and they would often perch on her shoulders and some even on her head but she never shooed them away. For her, it used to be the happiest hour of the day.

After completing his graduation, the narrator got a chance to go abroad for higher studies for five years. The narrator felt that this will upset his grandmother but to his surprise, she was not sentimental and she happily bid him and sent him away for his studies. She visited the railway station to see him off. She continued moving the beads of her rosary while reciting the prayers and before he left, she gently kissed the narrator at his head. She was too old by now and the narrator was not sure if he would ever be able to see her again as he was going away for five years.

However, when the narrator returned after five years, he found his grandmother at the railway station again who came to receive him. She held him in her arms. The narrator observed that though his grandmother was looking as old as she always was, she grew more religious, calm, and content. She continued reciting her prayers and the narrator could listen to her. Even on the day of his return, his grandmother didn’t forget to feed the sparrows and enjoyed her time with the birds. However, in the evening, something strange happened. For the first time, she didn’t pray. Rather she decided to invite women from the neighborhood. She was in the mood of celebration as her grandson had returned. She got an old drum and started to sing songs about the homecoming of warriors. The narrator and his parents tried to persuade her to stop and not to overstrain herself but she wouldn’t listen to them.

On the next morning, she fell ill. As the doctor came to check on her, he informed them that it was a minor fever. But the narrator’s grandmother insisted that it was her time to go. She was convinced that her end is near. She told everyone that she did not want to talk to anyone and would rather spend her last moments praying. She ignored everyone’s protests and started counting the beads in her rosary while praying.

After a short while, the narrator noticed that his grandmother’s lips stopped moving and the rosary fell from her lifeless fingers. She died a peaceful death. She was covered with a red shawl. When the narrator and others came to take her body for the funeral, they saw that a lot of sparrows had surrounded the grandmother’s body as if they gathered to mourn her death. All the sparrows were silent and appeared sad. The narrator’s mother offered some bread to the sparrows but they didn’t eat and quietly flew away after the grandmother’s body was carried away for the last rites.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Vanity of Human Wishes by Samuel Johnson | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Vanity of Human Wishes is a poem by Samuel Johnson that was first published in 1749. It is a 368-line long poem composed in 25 stanzas of varying length. All the lines are written in rhyming heroic couplets. It was Johnson’s second long poem after London and it was the first that he published under his name. The poem talks about the futility of human desires and ambitions and how political power, financial power, intellectual power, and even sexual power can offer no satisfaction or solace to anyone. The poet suggests that the only means to attain some worth is through the means of praying to God and that the antidote to vain human wishes is non-vain spiritual wishes. Johnson’s previous poem ‘London’ was the imitation of Juvenal’s Third satire and this poem is an imitation of Juvenal’s Tenth satire. The subtitle of The Vanity of Human Wishes is “The Tenth Satire of Juvenal Imitated”.

Juvenal satirized and mocked the victorious ways of the great General Hannibal in his satire while emphasizing that all his victories will go in vain. Samuel Johnson satirizes Charles XII of Sweden who too was a great warrior.

Sir Walter Scott, T. S. Eliot, Samuel Beckett, and many other authors of later periods stated that though they liked Samuel Johnson’s previous poem London, they absolutely loved The Vanity of Human Wishes and termed it as the greatest poem of Samuel Johnson.

Summary of The Vanity of Human Desires:

Stanza 1 Lines 1-20

The poem begins as the poet offers a wide view from China to Peru, as if extensively observing the whole world, and says that the observation is distressing. He sees that the whole of mankind is driven by "hope and fear, desire and hate,” while they hardly pay any attention to reason. He observes that these irrational emotions often lead people astray. The poet uses simile and says that people are often driven by pride, which misguides him like a "treacherous" phantom, or ghost, in the mist. He uses metaphor and describes fate as a ‘clouded maze.’ The poet says that entire nations fall and are destroyed because of schemes and decisions of power-hungry fools who are guided by their vengeance.

Stanza 2 Lines 21-28

The poet offers an example of gold to support his statement regarding the vanity of human wishes.

All human beings love gold, but gold is a ‘wide wasting pest’. It destroys everyone. The judge destroys the law to collect the gold, and people undertake crimes to collect the same gold. It is because of gold, criminals' record increases. The poet then says that no matter how rich we are, we can't buy truth or safety. On the contrary: more wealth brings with it more danger.

Stanza 3 Lines 29-36

The poet says that history teaches us that a vassal or a lowly person, or a hind has always cherished life in a better manner than a ‘lord’ because the lords are often busy while fighting with the ‘rival kings’ to increase or maintain power. The one who wins the power then twists the laws as per his wishes. While a lowly vassal is beneath the power, a rich traitor who strives for power, often reaches the ‘Tow’r’ (London’s Tower, the famous prison). A lowly person on the other hand sleeps peacefully in his small cottage even though the greedy vultures can confiscate whatever little the hind have.

Stanza 4 Lines 37-44

The poet then describes a poor happy-go-lucky traveler who has nothing to lose. He spends his time singing and cherishing the wilderness. The poet personifies ‘Envy’ and says that if envy seizes him he loses all his happiness because then, his only worry is how to gather more money. If his wealth increases, his peace gets destroyed. He no longer can sleep peacefully as he worries about being robbed. Even rustling leaves startles him and he is scared of shadows. He is afraid of the dark as it hides the thieves and he is afraid of light too because light shows what has been stolen from him.

Stanza 5 Lines 45-48

The poet says that everyone knows the ill-effect of wealth yet, people wish for more money. Everyone strives for gaining more money and power. They hardly realize the worries of a statesman or a politician who has to worry about his scheming rivals and who will inherit his title.

Stanza 6 Lines 49-68

Johnson invokes Democritus and says that during his time in Ancient Greece, the lack of worldly goods meant that people weren't so greedy. People were used to doing hard work that crushed their arrogance. He asks Democritus to observe and mock the current life in Britain where everyone is greedy, money-hungry, and arrogant. The poet continues to mock British society where fake debates are held with no constructive result. Mayors and statesmen are elected and inaugurated in their office with too many rituals and fanfare. The British society is so corrupt that the statesmen change laws as per their liking and the courts judge a case before hearing all the evidence. The poet says that if Democritus sees all that is happening in Britain, he will attack British society with his wits and criticism. He will teach that pleasure and pain, joys and sorrows are just toys that must not affect a human too much. The ‘robes of pleasure’ and ‘veils of woe’ are meaningless to Democritus.

Stanza 7 Lines 69-72

In these lines, the poet observes that even during ancient times, Democritus was full of scorn for people and humankind in general, and his scorn was justified. If we observe what people desire and wish for, we would see they deserve scorn.

Stanza 8 Lines 73-90

In this stanza, the poet continues to criticize people as he feels that they are too much concerned about wealth and power. However, troublemakers and enemies continue to hound them and they never feel safe. The powerful people are hated because of their corruption and when then they lose everything, they are mocked and insulted. Powerful people get their portraits hanged on palladiums and walls but people’s hatred becomes the reason for the fall of that wall.

Stanza 9 Lines 91-98

The poet wonders if Britain as a society wake up to his call and vanquish its enemies, those who are greedy and power-hungry? Or will Britain support and safeguard those corrupt favorites? The poet observes that those British who pretend to be the defender of freedom, never talk of the corruption of nobles, kings, and politicians. They are weak-willed and unable to stand against corrupt ways.

Stanza 10 Lines 99-120

In this stanza, Samuel Johnson begins to give examples of historical figures as a way of providing evidence for his views. He begins with Cardinal Thomas Wolsey to justify the vanity of human wishes. He wanted to acquire power after power so that everyone submits in front of his will. But once he reached the power everyone hates him. He did not get any followers nor did he get any warmth and affection from people. The desire for absolute power leads him to public hatred and dislike. Then Wolsey is oppressed by age and worries and illness, and so he seeks to recover by leading a monastic life. But his grief makes his illness worse. The memory of all his mistakes stings him. And with his last breath, he reproaches (criticizes) treacherous kings. It's not a good way to go out.

Stanza 11 Lines 121-128

The poet questions the reader directly and asks if they would prefer Wosley’s power and wealth that resulted in his certain downfall and pitiful death?

Stanza 12 Lines Lines 129-134

In this stanza, the poet remembers other historical figures who were power-hungry and greedy and mentions how they faced their downfall. Villiers ended up killed by an assassin. Harley died of disease. Wentworth ended up murdered. Hyde was exiled. All of these political figures ended their lives in misfortune because their desire for great power was indulged, even though these men were protected by kings and allied to them.

Stanza 13 Lines 135-164

Samuel Johnson discusses the life of academics, writers, and scholars in this stanza. He recounts his own experiences. When a student is first enrolled in college, he leaves his easy life in search of scholarly fame. The student tries to fill the Bodleian Library at Oxford University with his works. He pursues to surpass the talent of Sir Roger Bacon, the famous philosopher. The poet mentions the popular belief that the Bridge made in the name of Roger Bacon will collapse when a scholar greater than Bacon makes his way under it. The poet hopes that the students will lead a virtuous life and explore the truth. However, the poet says that the student faces a lot of troubles, temptations, and obstacles in their pursuit of knowledge. Bad delights, praise, difficulties, and laziness often slow them down. The poet says that a student’s heart must be hopeful but often they fall in grief and danger. He says that students must accept the truth that just like others, they cannot evade the doom that is destined for mankind. Once the students accept that misfortune and grief are a part of life, they can become fully wise. A scholar’s life is full of dangers including too much hard work, envy, failure, patrons, and jail. The poet says that a scholar must be open to any such difficulties. A scholar must not delude himself from praise and if he is too hopeful, he must remember Lydial's life and Galileo's death.

Stanza 14 Lines 165-174

In these lines, the poet says that even if a scholar succeeds in his scholarly struggles, he must not forget that his enemies and haters will also gain success and will gain equal prestige and fame. Johnson gives an example of William Laud, a learned man who was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633-45. He was executed in 1645 by his enemies—the Parliamentarians. The poet says that those with ‘meaner minds’ get minor punishment but the geniuses like William Laud suffer harsher punishments.

Stanza 15 Lines 175-190

In this stanza, the poet talks about Brave people and mentions Alexander the Great as “rapid Greek.” He mentions the great victories of the Romans and British rulers. Then he says that the actions of ‘Brave’ men were not guided by virtues and goodness, but they were eager and greedy for fame and power, they didn’t care about being good. The poet personifies ‘Reason’ and says that when Reason observes these ‘brave men’ he frowns upon them because, for their personal grandiose and fame, they brought whole nations to poverty and debt. While the wreaths for celebrating their victories at war decay soon, the pile of debt that they accumulate to be paid by the poor people of their nation doesn’t disappear so soon.

Stanza 16 Lines 191-222

The poet supports the vanity of human wishes with the example of Charles XII, the Swedish king who wanted to conquer the whole world. He had the desire to accumulate all the properties of the world. But having conquered the world he had to end up in the barren land. His desire for power and property leads him to death.

Stanza 17 Lines 223-240

In these lines, the poet confirms his statement about warlords by criticizing the warriors from the past. He mentions Persia's tyrant" (Xerxes) and "Bavaria's lord" the Roman king. The poet criticizes Xerexes as hostile and barbaric who was too greedy for power over others and got mad about it. At last, the Greeks confronted him and ridiculed his show of power.

Stanza 18 Lines 241-254

The poet ridicules Charles Albert, or Charles VII, the "bold Bavarian" who tried to get the throne of Austria. A woman named Maria Theresa raised an army of Croatian fighters and Hungarian horsemen to defeat him badly. Charles Albert was then ridiculed by his enemies and criticized by his own people. He died in ignominy and shame.

Stanza 19 Lines 256-282

In this stanza, the poet criticizes those who desire long lives. They do not realize that a longer life means more misery. The poet says that "Life protracted is protracted woe" because Time is the problem that destroys everything and takes away all possibilities of happiness. With time, even food and wine become tasteless and no luxury could soothe us. Even music cannot heal the troubles of time as old people fail to hear anything even if Orpheus the great Greek musician comes and play music for them. With age, the ability to reason also diminishes, and older people become senile and reach insanity.

Stanza 20 Lines 283-290

The poet says that with time, our body ages and becomes weaker. Many illnesses invade an old man’s body making him incapable but his greed to live more never ceases. He continues to lose everything he had accumulated and then dies penniless.

Stanza 21 Lines 291-298

In this stanza, the poet says that a moderate, healthy, and active life would be better than a long, unhealthy, sick life. He says that one should wish for a life in which he is free from scorn and crime. A person living moderate life enjoys better sleep and a clear conscience. The poet says that everyone would like to live a peaceful and happy life and no one would like to have an end to it.

Stanza 22 Lines 299-310

In this stanza, the poet says that even in a moderate life, things will continue to deteriorate. Even this peaceful life is plagued by misfortune. With each new day, there's a new sorrow: a sister might get sick or a daughter might be sad. A person living a peaceful life will also suffer the fear of death. Gradually, all joy of a moderate life also evaporates because nature brings changes and our viewpoints too change with them.

Stanza 23 Lines 311-318

In this stanza, the poet mentions some people from the past who lead a peaceful moderate life but suffered misery and troubles during the latter half of their life. He mentions "Lydia's monarch" (Croesus) who was visited by the Athenian wise man Solon. He mentions the Duke of Marlborough, who lead a good moderate life but then suffered strokes in his old age and was paralyzed later in his life until he died. Johnson also mentions the writer Jonathan Swift, who suffered ill health toward the end of his life.

Stanza 24 Lines 319-341

In this stanza, the poet describes the vanity of feminine beauty that appears to bring pride and happiness. He says that every mother wishes her child to be beautiful as beauty will bring happiness to her. However, the poet mentions the example of Lady Vane who became a mistress to King George II's son, Frederick. She was very beautiful but her beauty only brought troubles to her. Similarly, he mentions Catherine Sedley who became the mistress of King James II because she was very beautiful. But she had to suffer the anger and curse of her father Sir Charles Sidley who didn’t like King James II. The poet then criticizes young ladies who pursue luxuries and romance while ignoring knowledge and wisdom. He says that these ladies are vain, and they smile to manipulate and are interested in the latest romantic fashions. They ignore the voice of virtue and goodness, and they throw pride and prudence to the wind. Soon they find themselves the subject of scandals, gossip, and rumors.

Stanza 25 Lines 342-368

After criticizing all possible ways a man may try to look for satisfaction and happiness, the poet questions what is the correct way of finding satisfaction? In the concluding part of the poem, Johnson suggests developing the right frame of mind. We should not complain about anything. We should control our passion and will and be loving and mindful of mankind and that is sufficient for our happiness. The only way to get happiness is through God. The poet says that we can raise our voices to ask for good, but we have to leave it to Heaven to work things out for us. The poet ends the poem with the message that only true happiness is possible through prayers.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

The Black Cat by Edgar Allan Poe | Themes, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Black Cat is a short story written by Edgar Allan Poe that was first published on August 19, 1843, in the edition of The Saturday Evening Post. The story is a prime example of the genre of Dark Romanticism or Gothic literature that emanated as a response to American Transcendentalism. Just like Transcendentalists, Dark Romanticists too considered intuitions over logic and emphasized human emotions and imagination. However, while transcendentalists showed a sense of optimism and goodness in nature, Dark Romanticists emphasized human fallibility. Works of Dark Romanticism frequently show individuals failing in their attempts to make changes for the better.

Themes of The Black Cat:

The main theme of Poe’s story is ‘Guilt.’ The Black Cat is often compared with Poe’s other story ‘The Tell-Tale Heart.’ In both these stories, a murderer carefully conceals his crime and believes himself unassailable, but eventually breaks down and reveals himself, impelled by a nagging reminder of his guilt. In The Black Cat, the narrator’s guilt brings the black cat back from the dead to haunt him. The cat represents his guilt. As the narrator feels more guilty, the cat becomes more active. Another important theme is the issue of sanity versus insanity. The narrator was aware of his fall. The story illustrates best the capacity of the human mind to observe its own deterioration and the ability of the mind to comment upon its own destruction without being able to objectively halt that deterioration. The story is that of Perversion and its effect. Poe highlights the probable ill effects of Alcoholism through this story. Another theme of the story is superstitions and supernatural beliefs. The title The Black Cat itself suggests superstitious elements. It is based on the superstition that a black cat brings bad luck.

Characters of The Black Cat:

The main character of the story is the unnamed unreliable narrator who is driven to madness. However, he assures the reader that he is not mad and since he is about to die the very next day, he won’t say a lie. The narrator clearly states that he is a great animal lover who believes that if your pet animal loves you and is loyal to you, it means you are a good person but if your pet shows disloyal behavior, it means you are not morally correct. The narrator had a good life but then he turned alcoholic. The narrator’s wife also remains unnamed. She is a submissive wife who also loves animals and dares to stand for them against the brutality she sees committed against the animals by her husband. Both the narrator and his wife were animal lovers. Then they brought Pluto, a black cat. While the relationship of the narrator was already deteriorating with his wife and other pet animals as he was suffering the ill effects of alcoholism, he made a strong connection with Pluto and it became his favorite pet. However, gradually he found himself more in the effect of alcohol, and soon Pluto suffered ill-treatment. The Second Cat remains unnamed. After the death of Pluto, the narrator’s house mysteriously catches fire and is destroyed. The narrator misses Pluto and when he sees this second cat, it appears just like Pluto as it is also black but with white fur on its breasts. The second cat lacks an eye just like Pluto. It signifies the narrator’s guilt who is extremely repulsed by the new cat and even tries to kill it. The Police also play an important role in unfolding the mystery. As they visit the narrator’s house to investigate the disappearance of his wife, they instigate him to succumb to his own guilt.

Summary of The Black Cat:

The story begins as the narrator informs that he is about to die the next day as he will be sent to the gallows. The narrator insists that though he may appear mad, he is not insane and he wants the reader to believe what he is about to say. He says that he wishes to reveal some household events that happened to him in the recent past and how they lead him to the brink of death.

The narrator informs that since childhood, he has always loved pet animals as he had many pets. He especially loved dogs because he believed that the usefulness and loyalty of a dog surpass what one may achieve from other people. However, as he grew adult, he did marry and luckily, his wife too loved animals. His wife always respected his love for animals and together, they had many pets including a goldfish, rabbit, dog, birds, and a monkey. Then they brought a new pet, a black cat. The narrator named the cat Pluto and he was very fond of it. The black cat became his favorite pet. The cat was unusually large and impressive. The narrator’s wife often claimed that black cats are witches in disguises but the narrator didn’t believe in superstition. Nevertheless, his wife always loved Pluto and so did he. Pluto too loved the narrator and would follow him everywhere. They developed a special bond that continued for years. However, the time was not good for the narrator. He suffered some losses in business and gradually got addicted to alcohol. He would often get drunk and that started affecting his mood as he lost much of his patience. Situations worsened and his relationships with the animals started deteriorating. Often he would show bouts of temper to the pet animals and hence, most of the animals started fearing him and keeping him away. However, Pluto remained loyal to him. Yet, he felt that Pluto too started avoiding and wouldn’t follow him like he used to do in the past. One day, when the narrator returned home, drunk, he felt that Pluto is avoiding him and he didn’t like that and Pluto bore the brunt of his rage. The narrator informs that though he is ashamed of his action he attacked the cat and gouged out one of Pluto’s eyes with a quill pen.

The next morning, the narrator felt horrible and ashamed of his cruel act. The eye socket of Pluto gradually healed but the cat learned the hard lesson to keep away from the narrator as it was fearful of him. The narrator was very sad about it as he actually loved Pluto which had been his only consistent supporter in his bad times. Pluto’s rejection of him forced him towards alcohol. Alcohol continued affecting him and soon his sadness turned to rage and perversion. The narrator says that Perversion is a natural phenomenon in human beings, to do the thing that one knows is wrong just because it is wrong. The narrator explains that he started liking the idea of harming his own pets. One day while he was too drunk, he grabbed Pluto and hung it from a tree. The black cat died. The narrator mentions that he was crying while murdering the cat because he actually loved the pet and he knew that he was committing a great sin for which there is no redemption.

The narrator slept while still in the stupor of alcohol. After some hours, the narrator and his wife were forced to wake up because of the raging sounds of flames. Their house was on fire and as the smoke was increasing, they ran out for safety. The narrator saw all their belongings being burnt in the fire. The next day, the narrator examined his burnt house and saw that all the walls except one had fallen because of the fire. The crowd gathered around the remaining wall that was still standing. The narrator observed that there was the shape of the black cat on the wall, being hanged by the tree. The wall was recently plastered. The narrator applies logic and thinks that when his home caught fire, someone might have thrown the dead body of Pluto through the window and it got stuck with the wall.

The narrator and his wife shifted to another building. One day, when the narrator was about to buy a barrel of alcohol, he saw a black cat sitting on the barrel. This cat too was missing an eye. It was exactly looking like Pluto with a little difference. This second black cat had a small patch of white fur on its breast. The narrator liked the cat and started patting him. The second cat too responded cordially and the narrator brought the second black cat to his home. His wife too welcomed the new cat. Though the narrator loved the cat, he wasn’t the same as before. He didn’t name this new pet. The narrator continued his tryst with alcohol and soon his perversion got to new heights. Though he brought the second cat himself, he started disliking the cat’s inquisitiveness and tendency to follow him everywhere. Not only that, his anger had increased many folds. Now he didn’t have any pets except the second black cat, and his wife who too started feeling the heat of his rage.

One day, the narrator and his wife decided to visit the cellar of their new house building to store some things. The second cat followed the narrator and his wife. While they were going down the stairs, the black cat jumped over and raced past them. The narrator felt a sudden rush of anger and he picked an ax and swung at the cat. The narrator’s wife interjected at the right moment and stopped him from killing the cat. While the cat was saved, the narrator couldn’t control his rage. In his anger, he attacked his wife with the same ax and she got killed right on the stairs to the cellar. The narrator somehow dragged her body to the cellar and decided to hide it in one of the walls of the cellar with cement and tar. After completing his job, he was convinced that no one would ever come to know that the dead body of his wife is hidden in the wall of the cellar. While the narrator was at peace, he noticed that the second black cat was mysteriously absent.

After four days, the police knocked at the narrator’s house. Someone had informed the police about the vanishing of his wife as nobody saw her for four days. The police questioned him about his missing wife and he answered that he didn’t know anything. The police investigated his whole house but the narrator was confident and free of any fear or guilt as he was convinced that the dead body of his wife will never be revealed. The police visited the cellar and the narrator boasted about the good strong build of the walls by tapping on them. As he tapped the wall in which he hid the body of his wife, a terrible wailing howl of a cat came from the inside of the wall. The narrator got extremely nervous. His face started showing off his guilt. The police decided to examine the wall to confirm from where the shriek of the crying cat came. As they broke the wall, they found the dead body of his wife, as the second black cat was sitting on her dead body. As the narrator saw towards it, the second black cat stared at him with its one eye.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Rabbit at Rest by John Updike | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Rabbit at Rest is the fourth and final novel of the Rabbit series that was published in the year 1990. It is one of the most detailed novels by John Updike in which he explores the desire for death that we all carry inside us using his character Harry ‘Rabbit Angstrom. The story is set in the late 1980s. Harry is an obese 55 years old man suffering from overweight and heart issues. He still suffers problems because of his libido. In the prequel (Rabbit is Rich) he engaged in the practice of wife-swapping and Thelma Harrison, the wife of one of his old college friends and competitor Ron became his long-term mistress. Rabbit and his wife Janice have retired and since the actual owner of the family business (Toyota Dealership) is Janice, she has handed it over to Nelson who is suffering from drug addiction and is unable to maintain the business. Harry still misses his daughter Rebecca who died as Janice accidentally drowned her in the bathtub during her infancy. However, his granddaughter Judy (daughter of Nelson and Pru) is 11 years old now and she has a good relationship with Harry. Nelson’s younger son Roy is less attached to Harry and seems wary and fearful of Rabbit, much like Nelson.

Characters of Rabbit at Rest:

Harry Rabbit Angstrom is again the protagonist of the novel. He used to be a vibrant handsome athletic basketball star of his college during his youth. But now he is an obese 55 years old man who has retired from his wife’s family business at a Toyota Dealership. His wife Janice has given the authority of the business to their son Nelson who is a drug addict and confused person and can hardly handle the business. Nelson’s wife is Pru and they have two kids. 11 years old Judy who is close to her grandfather and four years old Roy, who like his father Nelson, doesn’t have a cordial relationship with Rabbit. Ron is an old college mate of Harry who used to be a rival basketball player. Ron and Harry never had a good relationship though they often pretended to be friends. Thelma Harrison is Ron’s wife. She developed a relationship with Harry and she has been his mistress. Cindy Murket is another woman whom Harry lusted for during his younger days. Ruth is another woman with whom Harry had an extramarital affair and he impregnated her but left her without confirming if she gave birth to their child or not. Harry often wonders about that child. Annabella is the nurse treating Harry at the hospital in Florida and he suspects that Annabella is his and Ruth’s daughter.

Summary of Rabbit at Rest:

The story is set in the late 1980s, just before the decade of the 1990s. Harry Angstrom is now 55 years old. He never had good relationships with his wife Janice yet, they managed to continue their marriage for 33 years despite all odds. Their son Nelson is grown up now and he is married to Pru. He completed his graduation from Kent University. Harry got the ownership and management of Toyota Dealership in Brewer, Pennsylvania in inheritance after the death of his father-in-law. However, since his wife Janice was the actual owner, she decided to hand over the business to their son Nelson, forcing Harry to retire from business. Harry was not in favor of allowing Nelson to control the business but he couldn’t oppose Janice. Nelson is drug addicted and instead of paying attention to the business, he often siphons off money from business to his drug addiction. Harry knows about it and remains pensive and depressed about the future. Nelson continues to ruin the business and ultimately, he loses the Toyota Dealership.

After retirement, he has grown fat and because of almost no work, he is leading an unhealthy life and often remains depressed. He is addicted to eating snacks and fails to control himself. During the cold season, Harry and Janice retreat to Florida, and then they return during the summer. However, Harry doesn’t have a good relationship with Nelson and thus he often spends his time in Florida. He is very close to his granddaughter Judy who is now a growing-up teenager, turning out to be a beautiful lady. Harry feels that while Judy is becoming a responsible adult, he can be a child again with her. His grandson Ron doesn’t like Harry much.

One day, during his stay in Florida, when Judy was with him, he goes for a fishing excursion. During their fishing excursion, Judy falls off the boat and Harry realizes that she doesn’t know how to swim. The accident reminds him of his dead daughter Rebecca who accidentally drowned in a bathtub during her infancy. At the same time, Harry suffers a heart attack. Harry is too fat to act swiftly but he gathers all his courage to save Judy from drowning even while succumbing to his failing heart, redeeming his earlier failure.

He is hospitalized in Florida where a nurse Annabella is assigned to take care of him. As Harry recuperates, he develops a rapport with Annabella who looks familiar to him. He starts suspecting that Annabella is his daughter from his extramarital affair with Ruth. He tries to know about Annabella’s past but fails to come to any conclusion. Meanwhile, he learns about the death of Thelma Harrison with whom he developed a relationship during his trip to Carrebean in which they engaged in wife-swapping activity. Thelma had been his mistress since then but she died of lupus. As Harry gains health, he returns to Brewer to join Thelma’s funeral. During the funeral, Thelma’s husband Ron confronts Harry about his extramarital affair with his wife. Harry had no answer but he succeeds in calming down Ron and then they resolve their dispute during a gold game. Harry also meets Cindy Murkett whom he always lusted for during his younger years. However, she has completely changed and now she is a fat angry woman whom Harry cannot appreciate.

Harry suffers more depression and questions if there is any motive for his life. The only solace he gets is in seeing Judy grow up into an impressive teenager.

As Nelson lost Toyota Dealership, the family suffers monetary problems. Harry is still ill while Janice forcibly sends Nelson to a Drug and Alcohol Rehabilitation center. Janice herself starts working as a real estate broker. Meanwhile,. Harry develops an illicit relationship with Pru who had been too troubled by Nelson’s carelessness and debauchery. While the family starts recuperating from the financial problems, Janice discovers the illicit relationship between Harry and Pru and gets too much angry. She knew about Ruth, Thelma, and Cindy, but she couldn’t bear the thought that Rabbit made a physical relationship with his daughter-in-law. Rabbit realizes his mistake but couldn’t face Janice out of his cowardice and decides to run back to Florida.

In Florida, Harry decides to develop a new enthusiasm toward life and starts exercising and improving his health. One day, he sees a local boy playing Basketball and it reminds him of his college days. He decides to challenge the boy and they engage in a game. Harry struggles but succeeds in winning the game but as soon as he shouts hurray for his win, he suffers a major heart attack.

While he is hospitalized, Janice and Nelson rush to Florida to take care of him. They reach the hospital in Florida at the time. Harry is still alive. He sees Janice and asks for forgiveness. Janice forgives him for cheating on her, and he and Nelson express their acceptance of each other. Rabbit dies peacefully, having repaired his most intimate relationships.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Mark of Vishnu by Khushwant Singh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was an Indian author, lawyer, politician, journalist, and short story writer. The Mark of Vishnu is a short story written by Khushwant Singh which was published in his short story collection The Mark of Vishnu and Other Stories in 1958. The story is a satire against superstitions and tradition while it also explores the inhumanity, lack of values, and a false sense of superiority of the modern people. The story specifically targets the idea of the sanctity of all life forms embedded in Hindu traditions.

Characters of The Mark of Vishnu:

The main character of the story is Gunga Ram, a poor illiterate Brahmin man working as a servant in a household. He is an honest, pious but superstitious man who believed that “all life was sacred, even if it was of a serpent or scorpion or centipede.” Obviously, he always supported Mahatma Gandhi’s call for Ahimsa. He is a man who cannot discriminate even against other animals and species and believes that every living being, human, or otherwise, deserves equal respect and love. The four boys of the household are the other ‘collective character’ of the story. They are all teenagers as they study in the high school. The boys are very proud and they often ridicule Ganga Ram and make fun of him for his lack of education and traditional ways. They believe he is very superstitious and they have nothing to do with the idea of Mahatma Gandhi, or Ahimsa. They have a sense of superiority over Ganga Ram because of his lack of education, and poverty. They believe that irrespective of being elder to them, Gunga Ram doesn’t deserve any respect because he is just a servant. Their behavior suggests that even the other elders of the house do not treat Ganga Ram well. The narrator is one of the boys. The other important character is a snake, King Cobra whom Gunga Ram calls Kala Nag that lives in a hole near the sidewall of the house. The snake is poisonous but it has never harmed anyone ever. Gunga Ram is aware of the snake and so are the boys. None of them are frightened by the snake. Gunga Ram respects the snake as a life form representing the trinity of gods Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh. The boys are playful, ill-mannered, and often cruel to Gunga Ram.

Summary of The Mark of Vishnu:

The story begins with an argument between Gunga Ram and the four boys. The narrator is one of the four boys who see Gunga Ram putting some milk in a saucer and placing it near the hole in the side wall where a big black king cobra is hiding. When the boys counter Gunga Ram and ask him why he is doing so, Gunga Ram answers that he daily offers milk to the Kala Nag, "Every night I leave it outside the hole near the wall and it’s gone by the morning," he says. The narrator abuses Gunga Ram and calls him stupid. The boys argue that it must be the cat that drinks the milk because a snake does not drink milk and even if it does, it cannot drink that much milk. Gunga Ram opposes them and says that no cat goes near the hole. The narrator tells him that they have observed many dead snakes in their school laboratory kept in the methylated spirit. He then tells him about the incident when their teacher bought an exotic snake that could run both ways and kept it in an empty jar and as the snake tried to escape, it got killed. Gunga Ram turns his eyes shut as he disliked the idea of murdering snakes just to keep them in jars for exhibition. Gunga Ram believed in the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the creator, preserver, and destroyer. He believed that all life forms are equally respectful and represent god. He was most devoted to Vishnu. He would often oppose the boys when they would kill little insects, wasps, centipedes, scorpions, or others for their fun. For Gunga Ram, all life was sacred, even if it was of a serpent or scorpion, or centipede.

The boys considered Gunga Ram as an illiterate, foolish, superstitious Brahmin. The narrator declares that they (the boys) will kill his Kala Nag as soon as they see him. Gunga Ram says that he won’t let them kill the snake. He tries to dissuade them by saying that the snake has laid 100 eggs and that if they kill the snake, the baby snakes will take revenge on them. However, the boys point out that the snake is a male and cannot lay eggs. They ridicule Gunga Ram and say that Gunga Ram himself might have laid those eggs.

The boys say that instead of killing the snake, they will catch it alive and send it to Bombay where it will be milked to create anti-venom. Gunga Ram retorts that he has never seen a snake with udders and a snake cannot be milked.

The boys had no idea of Hindu beliefs, nor had they ever heard of Mahatma Gandhi and his idea of Ahimsa. For them, killing insects, birds, and snakes is just a fun game. Gunga Ram had his own ideas. He believed that snakes are the most vile species of nature, and if one can love and respect them, they prove the point of the sanctity of all life forms.

After some days, it started raining with the arrival of Monsoon. All the holes and pits got filled with rainwater. The snake was forced to get out and search for another safer place. However, the boys noticed the snake moving out on the slippery muddy ground. They took bamboo sticks and attacked the snake, breaking its back. But they didn’t kill the snake. The back of the snake was brutally broken but its hood was undamaged as the boys didn’t wish to ruin it. They planned to take the snake to their school for an exhibition. They stored the injured snake in a tin of biscuit and tied it with a strong string and kept it under the bed.

Gunga Ram had no knowledge of their activity. When the boys saw him, they asked him if he will keep the milk for the snake again? Gunga Ram answered that he will, to which the boys objected that the snake won’t need any milk anyways. Gunga Ram got suspicious and asked why? The boys didn’t reveal that they have injured and captured the snake, but they said that it is raining and there are many frogs on the ground. The boys said that the snake must have eaten some frog. They further ridiculed Gunga Ram and said that your milk is tasteless as you never add any sugar to it.

The next morning, Gunga Ram noticed that the milk was still in the saucer as the snake didn’t drink. He got suspicious. The narrator said that he already knew that the snake likes frogs more than Gunga Ram’s milk. However, Gunga Ram’s suspicion was growing over the boys. He kept a close eye on the boys. As the boys got ready for school, they took the tin of biscuits in them and before they could get to the school, the narrator informed Gunga Ram that his Kala Nag is safe in the tin and they are taking it to their school where they will keep it in the methylated spirit for exhibition.

Gunga Ram was shocked. He couldn’t believe that the boys got the snake despite him trying everything to protect it.

The four brothers reach their school and announce their catch. They present the tin with the snake to their science teacher. The boys are celebrated as a set of four brothers known for their toughness who just caught a big ferocious King Cobra. The teacher kept the tin on his table and pretended to be indifferent. He gave some problems for the students to solve and started preparing for the unboxing of the Kala Nag. He took a set of forceps from a methylated jar in which a dead Krait was kept and then he carefully started untying the tin of biscuit.

As soon as the teacher untied the string, the snake loomed out of the tin with its ferocious eyes. The hood of Kala Nag was taught and undamaged and though the snake felt difficulty in moving, it ferociously hissed and targeted the teacher’s face. The teacher moved backward to save himself and toppled on his own chair and fell to the ground. The king cobra raised his hood and hissed again. The teacher was petrified and so were all the students who stood on their desks and started shouting hysterically. Kala Nag might have slipped away its back was not that damaged but it was not able to move much. Somehow, the King cobra got off the table and dragged painfully towards the door. Meanwhile, Gunga Ram reached the school and he was standing right at the door of the class of the four brothers when he saw the Kala Nag on the teacher’s table. He came there to somehow save the Kala Nag and he had the same saucer and a jar of milk in his hand. He poured the milk into the saucer up to its brim and then he placed the saucer in front of the king cobra. With hands folded in prayer, he bowed his head to the ground craving forgiveness. In desperate fury, the cobra hissed and spat and bit Gunga Ram all over the head—then with great effort dragged himself into a gutter and wriggled out of view. Gunga Ram was badly bitten. The snake was highly venomous and Gunga Ram got blinded instantly. In pain, he covered his eyes with his hands and groaned in agony. Within a few minutes, he turned pale. A blue froth started coming out of his mouth and soon he collapsed. On his forehead were little drops of blood. When the teacher wiped Gunga Ram’s forehead, he saw the V mark on which the snake had dug his fangs.

The story may appear as a satire on superstitions, as a story of a foolish superstitious Brahmin who lost his life because of his blind faith in the sanctity of all life forms. The story suggests that no matter how much you respect nature, the wrath of nature will harm you indifferently. However, the story also points out at the inhumanity of the modern belief system and the lost human values n modern times.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

London by Samuel Johnson | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Samuel Johnson’s first major published work was the poem titled London which was published in May 1738. Johnson published the poem anonymously and the writer of the poem remained unknown for at least 15 years. However, the poem attained a huge fame and fan following. Alexander Pope liked the poem too much and tried everything to know about the actual writer of the poem but failed to know about him. Samuel Johnson imitated the Roman poet Juvenal’s third satire for this poem partly because he liked Juvenal and partly because he was following the trend of imitating Augustan poets during that period. Samuel Johnson criticizes the corruption, crimes, and poverty of the city of London in this poem. He uses the main character Thales to do so as Thales leaves for Wales to escape the problems of London. The poem had political connotations, criticizing the Whigs government headed by Sir Robert Walpole.

Structure of London:

It is an imitation of the Third satire of the Roman poet Juvenal in which Juvenal’s hero Umricius leaves Rome because of corruption and hypocrisy. Samuel Johnson’s hero is Thales who leaves London for Wales because of corruption, crime, and poverty. Johnson’s friend Richard Savage also left England and settled in Wales but Johnson made it clear that it was just a coincidence and the hero of the poem London imitates Juvenal’s Umricius. Furthermore, Johnson’s hero is named after the great Greek mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher from Miletus, Thales. It is a rather long poem with 263 lines. The first 34 lines are spoken by the narrator who remains anonymous while the other 229 lines are solely spoken by Thales, the hero of Samuel Johnson’s poem.

Analysis of London:

Samuel Johnson himself was working as a grub writer during his time in London and he had the experience of corruption in that emerging market firsthand. He reached London in 1737 and started working for The Gentlean’s Magazine. Parliamentary reporting was banned during the period as Sir Robert Walpole who had dominated British politics since taking over as the de facto Prime Minister successfully suppressed dissent through a mixture of brutality, bribery, and control of the print media. However, Samuel Johnson regularly contributed parliamentary reports such as "Debates of the Senate of Magna Lilliputia" for The Gentleman’s Magazine. John Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera became a huge hit which was a strong criticism of Walpole’s government. To control and avoid such criticism, the government passed the Stage Licensing Act of 1737 called for theater managers to submit all plays for government approval in advance of the performance. This also affected Johnson whose play Irene failed to get patrons and wasn’t staged till 1749. London manages to critique the Walpole regime indirectly and through coded references, but contemporary readers, particularly those in sympathy with the opposition, were readily able to see how the poem mocked Walpole’s reign as corrupt.

Summary of London:

The poem begins with a Latin epitaph directly taken from Juvenal’s Third Satire which can be loosely translated as “Who can endure this monstrous city, who is so iron-willed can bear it.”

Lines 1-4

The poem begins as the narrator expresses his frustration and sorrow at the state of London that has been deteriorated by the current government (headed by Sir Robert Walpole). However, the narrator praises his friend Thales as he is leaving London. At first, the narrator is confused about whether he should be sorry or should he be happy? Ultimately, he appreciates his friend Thale’s foresightedness in leaving London which, indeed, is a land of corruption. However, he is sad as he will lose a close friend.

Lines 5-8

The narrator informs that Thales is moving to a faraway place free from corruption. The air is purer in that countryside. Thales is moving to Wales, or Cambria, which is the ancient name of Wales. The narrator is happy that his friend Thales will be able to pay his homage to St. David at Cambria and then he will be able to live a peaceful happy life. In Juvenal’s Third Satire, Umricius leaves Rome to settle in Cumae in Southern Italy, the homeland of the Cumaean prophetess.

Lines 9-18

In these lines, the narrator depicts the corruption and poverty in London. He says that nobody will prefer to stay in London unless he has been bribed to do so. People will prefer to go to Ireland (Hibernia is the ancient name), or they will go to Scotland instead of living in London. The streets of London are full of malice, hypocrisy, and conspiracies. People in London never die untimely unless they are starving and it is too often. The narrator says that London is marred by ruffians or burglars who steal the properties of others, otherwise, people lose their belonging to fires and arson. The streets of London aren’t safe and ruffians often rob passersby. In addition, the lawyers of London are no less than ruffians and they continue to prey upon their clients. The houses of London are so congested and dilapidated that it appears they may fall at any time. The narrator wonders who would prefer to live in such a city?

Lines 19-34

In these lines, the narrator and Thales are waiting for a rowing boat on the bank of the river that will take Thales to the sea vessel. The wherry will pass through Greenwich state where Queen Elizabeth I took birth. The narrator praises Elizabeth I as a glorious and just ruler.

Lines 35-98

The speaker changes from line 35 onwards. Thales is the narrator of all these lines. He remembers his time in London and says that nobody wants to ever return to those shady cursed walls behind which people shamelessly commit vices and only think of personal gain. He says that those people in London who have devoted their lives to science, art, and knowledge, are wasting their time because there is no one in London to appreciate them. He prays to the almighty to let him find a better, happier place than London. Thales remembers that in the past when Germanic tribes attacked Britons, they took refuge in Wales. Thales says that he may remain poor in Wales too but he will be at peace. Thales criticizes those people who get a pension from the government in London and in return, they are expected to say nothing against the tyranny and corruption. He then says that the people taking the government’s pension are those who can take people’s rights away. The government is no longer the people’s government because it is pleading with pirates who will make the country hollow one day.

He then targets the Licensing Act of 1737 and says that the people in power can do anything because none can stop them from doing what they think is right. No one can restrain them in any manner. He further criticizes colonialism and says that the rulers of London take all the plundered money from colonies while the colonies suffer poverty and so do the common people of London. Thales declares that he cannot tolerate such corruption and hence he is unable to live in London. He tells his friend, the previous narrator, that though these politicians rose to power with their lies and sweet talks, he is rustic, truthful, and innocent, and hence, he cannot deceive someone or do something wrong.

Thales then names the first Duke of Marlborough and says that the people who take pensions from the government are inclined towards him who is known for his avarice. Similarly, the second Duke of Buckingham continues to squander people’s money. Thales say that such politicians are the real villains and enemy of London.

Lines 99-165

Thales praises the past of London when King Edward III was the ruler who was a successful commander. He says that London used to be the land of heroes and saints but now the people of London have become thoughtless. The people of England are no longer artful, valuable, fluent, and flexible. The bad rulers have made their country weaker in comparison to the foreign powers. He criticizes contemporary art forms and praises the rule of Henry IV when divine harmony existed in the country. Thales then satirizes the contemporary artists who only imitate the works of others and borrow their ideas to present them as their own. He says that only those artists thrive who follow the government are as corrupt as the government itself. He says that in London, only spineless slaves can live who feel no guilt in their slavery and they celebrate vices. Thales says that several crimes are daily committed in London but the most shameful crime is that of poverty. The biggest vice and crime is to be poor.

Lines 166-223

In these lines, Thales says that London is a place where the innocent is harrassed and ridiculed to such an extent that he feels distressed. Innocent and pure people are wounded to such an extent that they cannot heal ever. Despite their purity and innocence, the corrupt but rich people scorn them and say that they are so poor that it is seldom that there is a place reserved for them in heaven.

Thales then urges common innocent people to get together and rise against oppression and tyranny but then, he notices that poverty will not let them rise. He says that the government has groomed flatterers by giving them pensions. These flatterers praise all the vices and corrupt moves of the government. Thales then addresses the corrupt rulers and tells them that they rose to power from the same ground and after collecting so much wealth, they must look down on the poor people and help them. They should give food to the one who is starving instead of leading him to death.

Then Thales says to his friend that neither the flatterers will listen to his advice, nor the rulers will change their corrupt, cruel ways. He says that one day, the common public will come to know how much wealth these flatterers have amassed but then he says that it will change nothing but will further put salt to the wounds of the poor public.

He says that the corrupt flatterers pretend to be proud and honorable but they are not. Because if they are honorable, they should pay their gratitude to the public by refunding the property they have seized by corrupt means. But they wouldn’t do so. Thales again criticizes the Licensing Act of 1737 and says that the rulers and flatterers control all and they are looking forward to increasing their control. They are not ready to listen to any criticism.

Lines 224-263

After mentioning the ills of rulers and flatterers, Thales says that he just wishes to keep away from the follies of these people. He says that some people of respect in London often taunt him but those who pretend to be heroes of London are actual backstabbers. They act like gang leaders and lords of the streets. They rob common people and kill others for their money. He says that one should just close their doors as soon as he sees such people. Thales says that the rulers and people in power are cruel with no sense of guilt. They can kill anyone at any time and then they will attend the funeral of the same person as if they did nothing wrong. Thales says that these politicians think of nothing but how to increase their votes. They do nothing for the improvement of the country and enjoy all their time at the home of their mistresses. Thales then remembers and praises the reign of King Alfred the Great when the crime was so low that only a single jail was enough for all the criminals and that too often remained empty. King Alfred used to do fair justice. In his time there were no hypocrites, and he didn’t pay anyone to make them obey him. The special juries were not there in Alfred’s time. But now, the government has appointed special juries. The wealthier people and flatterers are the jurists and the government uses them to get their work done in the courts. Thales claims that the legal system of London is totally corrupt.

In the last stanza, Thales says to his friend that he is now going to the rustic Kent because he is tired of the corruption and tricks of the city and he knows that being innocent, he cannot survive the city life. In the last line, the poet Thales says that this is a satire that helped him in animating or bringing to life, whatever he wished to say about London.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected to the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Metzengerstein by Edgar Allan Poe | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Edgar Allan Poe was an American poet, novelist, short stories writer, editor, and literary critic who is known for his works in the genre of Dark Romanticism. He was the first American writer to earn a living through writing alone. He is considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and he also contributed to the emerging genre of science fiction. Edgar was born on January 19, 1809, and he died on October 7, 1849. He openly opposed the literary movement of Transcendentalism. Metzengerstein was the first published short story written by Edgar Allan Poe which was published in the Philadelphian magazine Saturday Courier on January 14, 1832. The subtitle of the story is “A Tale in Imitation of the German” It is a horror short story of the dark romantic genre with all essential gothic fiction conventions such as a hereditary feud between two ancient families, a gloom-drenched castle, a cryptic curse, and vaguely sinister machinations. Metzengerstein can also be categorized as a ghost story. The epigraph of the story is "Living I have been your plague, dying I shall be your death," which was taken from a Latin quote by Martin Luther.

Characters of Metzengerstein:

The story is told in a third-person narrative style. The narrator is an unnamed unknown person who tells the story of Frederick von Metzengerstein who belongs to a rich royal German family. He is the only surviving heir of Metzengerstein and he is just 18 years old. Despite being so young, he is known for his cruel ways. He becomes the youngest and cruelest Baron of the Metzengerstein family. Wilhelm von Berlifitzing is the 80-year-old Baron of the Berlifitzing family who is known for his vindictive nature. He is the only surviving Berlifitzing member. The two families are fighting each other since times unknown. Nobody knows the actual reason behind the animosity of these families. However, there is an old popular saying that suggests an ominous prophecy that “A lofty name shall have a fearful fall when, as the rider of his horse, the mortality of Metzengerstein shall triumph over the immortality of Berliftizing.”

Summary of Metzengerstein:

The story is set in Hungary which used to be a part of Greater Germany in the past. Though the story belongs to an unspecified point of time, it appears to be a story belonging to the 15th or 16th century when the belief in reincarnation was popular in Europe. The unknown narrator introduces the two proud families f Germany, the Metzengerstein and the Berlifitzing. Frederick Mertzengerstein is 18 years old and he is the only surviving member of the Metzengerstein family. He is known as a cruel and angry young man. Wilhelm von Berlifitzing is 80 year old only surviving member of the Berlifitzing family.

On his 18th birthday, Frederick von Metzengerstein has been announced the Baron of Metzengerstein estate. Just four days after his ascension to his family’s seat, a fire breaks out in the stable of the rival Berlifitzing family killing all their horses. One of the guards also burns alive when he tries to save some horses. It is rumored that Frederick von Metzengerstein is responsible for the arson. It becomes known that the guard who was burnt was Wilhelm Berifitzing himself and thus, there is no heir of the Berlifitzing estate now. This is a moment of triumph for Frederick Metzengerstein. It appears that the old saying is coming to its truth.

At his home, Frederick is occupied with studying an old tapestry that describes the prophetic legend: a gigantic, flame-colored Berlifitzing horse whose rider has been stabbed in the back by a Metzengerstein. In a moment of horror, he thinks he sees the horse in the tapestry move: bending over its dead master in mourning, eyes gleaming red, and its “disgusting and sepulchral” teeth bared. A messenger arrives and informs that a horse survived in the stable of Berlifiting. Frederick rises up from his study table abruptly and rushes to see the horse. As he rises up, his shadow is that of the Metzengerstein assassin depicted on the tapestry.

Frederick learns that the servants of Berlifitzing do not recognize this horse but the horse has the initials ‘W.v.B’ branded on his head. Frederick and others believe that this must have been the personal and most loved horse of Wilhelm von Berlifitzing. Frederick decides to keep the horse as his personal trophy for winning against the rival family. The horse is monstrously large and violent and everyone else fails to control the horse. The horse has an unnatural shade of orange with ominous dark red eyes and repellent teeth as depicted in the tapestry. Frederick ignores all these ominous signs and enjoys his victory. He is too engrossed by the horse, this victory trophy. He spends all his time with the horse, riding it in the countryside. Gradually, he starts ignoring his business affairs and duties. His only motive is to gain complete control over the horse. His obsession with the horse frightens the locals of his estate who believe that Frederick has gone insane.

One day, Frederick wakes up early in the morning and takes his new horse galloping off to the countryside. After some time, an accidental fire engulfs the stable of Metzengerstein's estate. The stable keepers try to control the fire but all their efforts fail. At last, they decide to save as many horses as they could by fleeing the horses free. However, while doing so, they notice a horseman furiously running towards the stable on fire. They observe that the horse is running too fast and the horseman is totally disoriented. It becomes clear that the horseman has completely lost control over the horse and his legs are entangled with the strings of the horse in such a way that he cannot free himself. They try to stop the horse but the horse leaps towards the fire and the horse and rider both are swallowed up by the raging flames. As soon as the horse and the horseman go down the wreckage, the fire extinguishes on the ground and the flames continue to rise up to the timbers. All the people gather to look for the horse and the horseman but they find nothing. Soon they notice the fire color of smoke rising above the stable and iittakes the shape of a fierce horse. The Metzengerstein family has no heir now.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!