Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Samuel Johnson began his literary career as a contributor for the weekly newspaper The Birmingham Journal which used to be published on every Thursday. Johnson began contributing to the Birmingham Journal in 1733 and in October 1737, Johnson joined The Gentlean’s Magazine as a contributor. While his essays in The Gentleman’s Magazine were of political nature, he began contributing to another magazine titled The Rambler in 1750. The Rambler was published on Tuesdays and Saturdays in London from 1750 to 1752. A total number of 208 articles were published in The Rambler and all but four of them were written by Samuel Johnson. The publisher of the periodical journal was John Payne who paid two guineas to Samuel Johnson for each of his articles. Unlike Richard Steele’s The Tatler (1709-1711), and Steele and Joseph Addison’s The Spectator (1711-1714), the essays of The Rambler were more serious in nature. Obviously, The Rambler didn’t get the same popularity as that of The Spectator, however, The Rambler was widely respected for the quality and power of the writing and the masterful use of language and rhetoric.
The major subjects discussed in the essays of The Rambler were morality, literature, society, politics, and religion. The Rambler didn’t prove to be a financial success but the essays written by Samuel Johnson for The Rambler became a huge success after being reissued, with the essays revised, in volume form in 1753.
Purpose of The Rambler: It was a period when the middle class of Britain was gaining strength. Literacy rates were high in England and the middle-class people were proving to be a strong force in the economy of Britain. As a result, they now had a more vibrant relationship with the upper middle class and aristocratic class of England. While the economic and social differences between the aristocratic class and middle class were diminishing, did not possess the social and intellectual tools to integrate into those higher social circles which required a great understanding of subjects including morality, literature, society, politics, and religion. John Payne and Samuel Johnson decided to write and publish copies of The Rambler in essay form which were made cheaply available for the middle-class people. The purpose was to help middle-class people in understanding the intricacies of varied subjects. Samuel Johnson was already a distinguished Man of Letters and the essays of The Rambler further strengthened his position as an intellectual of the Age of Enlightenment. In the fourth edition of The Rambler, Johnson explicitly commented that the purpose of The Rambler is to provide intellectual profit and literary delight to those who read his work. All these essays were didactic in nature but Samuel Johnson made sure that his essays may not appear as instructive manuals but rather may be read with an explorative attitude.
Initially, all the essays of The Rambler were published under the pseudonym The Rambler. However, in 1753, all 204 essays written by Samuel Johnson for the journal were published under his name. In these essays, Johnson often included his comments on his own experience of universal human anxieties and frustrations: The Rambler is a sage and a moralist, but he is also constitutionally indolent. Taken together these essays embody Johnson's belief that the author as a moralist must improve the world: they have little to do with contemporary political, social, or literary events, but the Rambler's comments on his society and on the human condition are characteristically ponderous, shrewd, ironic, compassionate, wise, and enormously perceptive.
One can compare Samuel Johnson’s essays in The Rambler with those of Francis Bacon’s Essays Civil and Moral. Samuel Johnson often included quotes and ideas from Renaissance humanists such as Desiderius Erasmus and René Descartes in his Essays for The Rambler and this is why his writings in The Rambler are considered neoclassical in nature.
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Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Irene is a Neoclassical tragedy play written by Samuel Johnson that was first performed on 6th February 1749. It is the only play that Samuel Johnson wrote and though he continued revising the play for a long period, he concluded that the play was a disaster after it was performed. He began writing the play in 1726 and he dedicated the play to his wife Elizabeth Johnson who was also known as Tetty who liked the play and believed that it will be a success. Samuel Johnson wrote the play in blank verse. Johnson completed the play in 1736 but couldn’t find a patron for its performance. In 1737, the British government announced the censorship act on theatres and it became difficult for Johnson to arrange the performance of his play. Irene was first performed in 1749 when Johnson’s former student and friend David Garrick decided to stage it. Many critics comment that the play might have worked well had Johnson chosen to write it in rhyme and not in blank verse which makes the play a moral preaching.
The play is based on the history of the Ottoman Empire and concerns the fate of Irene, a Greek slave loved by the emperor Sultan Mahomet. Johnson used Richard Knolles’s General Historie of the Turks as a reference that was published in 1602. He also used material from George Sandys's Relation of a Journey...containing a Description of the Turkish Empire (1615), Herbelot's Bibliothèque Orientale (1697), and Humphrey Prideaux's Life of Mahomet (1697).
The original documents suggested that the Ottoman Sultan Mahomet invaded and conquered Constantinople in 1453 and imprisoned a Greek Christian named Irene. He was enchanted by her beauty and decided to make her his mistress. He got so enamored by her that he began neglecting his duties and responsibilities as a monarch. He would spend most of his time with Irene, pursuing her romantically. The neglect of his duties resulted in riots and rebellion among his subjects. To bring order back, he murdered Irene by himself to prove his dedication towards his people.
Samuel Johnson fictionalized this incident to offer a view of Irene’s temptation.
Characters of Irene:
The main character of the play is Irene, a Greek Christian young girl who is captured by Ottoman invader Sultan Mahomet. Irene is a devoted Christian but the temptation of life and power persuades her to change her faith. Sultan Mahomet is an able administrator and a warrior. Aspasia is another Greek Christian girl, a friend of Irene who is also captured by the Ottomans. She is a devout Christian and maintains her faith. Cali Bassa is the prime Visier of Sultan Mahomet who warns him about the deteriorating administrative situation. Mustafa is a Turkish Aga honored by Sultan Mahomet. Abdalla is a military officer of Sultan Mahomet and he likes Aspasia and wishes to marry her but his love remains unrequited. Demetrius is a Greek nobleman whom Aspasia loves. He and Aspasia conspire against the invaders. Though Demetrius succeeds in freeing Aspasia, their conspiracy to topple the empire fails.
Summary of Irene:
The play begins as the Ottoman army celebrates its victory over Constantinople. The Ottoman emperor Sultan Mahomet is the new ruler of Constantinople. The Ottoman army has captured some Christians as prisoners and Irene is one of them. When Sultan Mahomet sees Irene, he finds her extremely beautiful and decides to keep her as his mistress. While he intends to use her as his personal slave, Irene with her beauty and intelligence, impresses him too much and he falls in love with her. He continues spending most of his time with her as he is romantically involved with her and wishes to marry her. However, Sultan’s too indulgence with a Christian slave creates tension among his subjects. His prime Visier Cali Bassa and Aga Mustafa do not like Irene because she is the reason why the Sultan is now neglecting his duties as the emperor. Meanwhile, Sultan’s military officer Abdalla falls in love with Aspasia, another Greek Christian prisoner who is a friend of Irene. He takes the help of Irene in pursuing Aspasia. When Irene informs Aspasia about Abdalla’s interest in her, Aspasia clearly says that she would prefer a life of celibacy in a convent rather than becoming a mistress of a Turk. Aspasia ridicules Irene for falling for worldly charms while ruining her faith.
Meanwhile, Mustafa and Cali Bassa engage in a power tussle to gather more political power among the subjects as Sultan Mahomet is ignoring his official duties. This power tussle creates mismanagement and the Ottoman administration bears the burden in the form of riots among citizens. Demetrius, the Greek nobleman and lover of Aspasiaplans takes advantage of the situation and he creates further tension among the people. As situations worsen, prime Visier Cali Bassa earnestly requests the Sultan to take care of his regime or he will face a revolt. Mahomet finally decides to take control of the situation. He offers Irene a proposal that if she accepts Islam, he will make her his queen. Irene is tempted to accept the proposal as she will be the queen of the strongest empire she knows of. She discusses the matter with Aspasia who again ridicules her and breaks all her friendly relationship with her. Irene gets enraged. She curses Aspasia and declares that she will accept Islam and will be the queen of Sultan Mahomet while Aspasia may continue with her faith and languish in prison.
Sultan Mahomet fulfills his promise and Irene becomes his queen who has accepted Islam. However, Vissier Bassa and Aga Mustafa are against this marriage and consider it immoral. They conspire against Sultan Mahomet and take the help of Demetrius in fanning the fire of riots in the city areas. Abdalla and Mustafa present inform Sultan Mahomet about the riots in such a manner that suggests that Irene is conspiring against him with the help of Demetrius and his associates. Sultan Mahomet is convinced that Bassa, with Irene's complicity, is plotting against him. This enrages him and fills his heart with hatred for Irene. He decides to punish her. Two of Abdalla’s captains attack Irene but before she dies, she succeeds in meeting Sultan Mahomet. In her dying moments, she reveals that she never conspired against him. She makes it clear that Bassa had conspired against the Sultan with the help of Demetrius and Aspasia whom Demetrius loved. Demetrius helped Bassa to get Aspasia back. She informs him that Demetrius and Aspasia have safely escaped from the prison. Mahomet investigates all the claims made by Irene and confirms that she was telling the truth but now she is dead and he is distraught by knowing that she was loyal to him.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Edgar Allan Poe is known as the inventor of detective fiction. He created the first fictional detective character named C. Auguste Dupin who first appeared in his short story The Murders in The Rue Morgue which was published in 1841. Dupin reappeared in his two other stories The Mystery of Marie Roger (1842), and The Purloin Letter (1844). Poe created the character of Dupin much before the term ‘detective’ was coined. Dupin displays many traits that were later copied by subsequent fictional detectives including Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot.
The Murders in The Rue Morgue is a short story and is the first published detective story and the first locked room mystery ever that was published in 1841 in Philadelphia literary journal Graham's Magazineand then in Poe's own 1845 short story collection Tales of Mystery and the Imagination.
Characters of The Murders in The Rue Morgue:
Monsieur C. Augustus Dupin is a young man of considerable intellect and creative imagination. He is living in Paris. He is not a professional detective but he has a desire for truth. He is a master of analytical reasoning who solves crimes by examining everything and by placing himself in the mind of the criminal. The unnamed narrator is an expatriate who is on an extended visit to Paris where he meets C. Auguste Dupin who happens to be his roommate. He becomes a close friend of C. Auguste Dupin. The narrator is intelligent but does not have the same insight as his associate. He chronicles the mysteries in a way that displays admiration for his friend's abilities. Madame L'Espanaye is an old woman who becomes a victim of a double murder at the Rue Morgue. She is found with her throat deeply slit and her body mangled. She has a daughter named Camille L'Espanaye who is found strangled and stuffed into a chimney in the double murder. Adolphe Le Bon is a bank clerk who once helped Dupin. He recently delivered four thousand francs to the L'Espanayes three days before their brutal murder. He is arrested despite a lack of evidence, and Dupin chooses to help him because he helped him in the past. The Sailor is a Frenchman from a Maltese ship, and he shows up at Dupin's door in answer to Dupin's ad seeking the owner of a lost Ourangutan. Monsieur G. Is the Perfect (high officer) of the Parisian Police. He is not as imaginative as Dupin. When Dupin offers him assistance in solving the double murder case, he accepts his help. Although he is not appreciative of the help.
Summary of The Murders in The Rue Morgue:
The story begins as the narrator offers a monologue and discusses the importance of analytical reasoning. To strengthen his argument about analytical reasoning, he offers an example, a story from his past when he was on an extended visit to Paris where he met Monsieur C. Auguste Dupin. Dupin is a poor young man though he splurges on books. The narrator first met Dupin in a library in Paris where they were searching for a rare book. Both became friends and decided to live together in seclusion in a gloomy old mansion. Since Dupin didn’t have much money, the narrator offered to pay the rent. The narrator was impressed by Dupin’s analytic abilities which Dupin attributes to his understanding of people's thoughts. Dupin shows his mental abilities by exactly guessing the narrator’s thoughts while observing his body language and recalling former conversations.
One day, the narrator sees a news article about a set of murders that had occurred that morning at three A.M. in the Rue Morgue. People heard screams from the fourth story of a house in the Rue Morgue belonging to Madame L'Espanaye and her daughter Camille. When they checked, they found that the house was locked from inside. Somehow, they broke in and they heard multiple angry voices from the upper portion of the house that soon faded away. As they searched the house, they found a locked room on the fourth floor of the house. They broke in and saw that the room was totally destroyed and contained, among other things, a bloody razor, clumps of grey hair, and two bags with four thousand francs in gold. The iron safe was totally damaged but it seemed as if nothing was stolen. Then they saw the fresh corpse of Camille L’Espanaye, the young girl whose body had been forced feet first into the chimney; her face was scratched, and her throat was bruised as if she had been strangled. They found the dead body of her mother, Madam L’Espanaye in the backyard with her throat so deeply cut, probably by the razor, that her head fell off when she was picked up, and with her body extremely mutilated by some heavy, blunt object.
The murdered mother and daughter were rich and very fond of each other. They were living in that house for over six years and they didn’t have any close living relatives. Some men claimed that on the night of the incident, they heard two voices from the fourth floor of the house. One of the voices was gruff, male, and French, and the other shrill, foreign, and strange. A witness confirmed that the French voice shouted, "sacré" (holy), "diable" (devil), and "mon dieu!" (My God!), but he couldn’t understand what the other shrill voice said.
A banker revealed that Madame L'Espanaye withdrew four thousand francs in gold three days before her death. Adolphe Le Bon was the clerk who visited L’Espanaye’s house to deliver the money. The police arrested Adoplhe as a suspect in the double murder despite lacking evidence.
When Dupin came to know about the case, he got very interested because he felt it was impossible and also because he was sympathetic to Adolphe Le Bon, the bank clerk who helped Dupin in the past. He criticizes the Parisian police for arresting Adolphe and decides to meet the Prefect of Police to obtain permission to investigate for himself. The Perfect is Monsieur G. whom Dupin knew well. He allows Dupin to visit the crime scene. Dupin and the narrator visit the Rue Morgue. Dupin examines all the evidence carefully and then they return to their mansion. The next day, Dupin asks the narrator if he saw something strange in the house of L’Espanaye and again criticizes the police for arresting Adolphe who Dupin believes is innocent.
Dupin says that the voices that people heard were not female and hence it could not have been a murder-suicide. He further exclaims that all the witnesses are of different nationalities but all of them identified the shrill voice as a foreign one. None could understand the words of the shrill voice. Dupin then says that the room was on the fourth floor and it was locked from inside. The murderer must have disappeared through the windows in the chamber. He says that the windows must have a concealed spring that allows the windows to fasten themselves. He further says that though it is difficult to climb up the wall for the fourth floor, someone of extraordinary athletic ability could have climbed up a nearby lightning pole and jumped onto a window shutter. He further asserts his belief in Adolphe’s innocence and says that the motive of money is unlikely, since no one took the money, and the bureau's drawers might not actually be missing any articles.
The narrator asks him who could be the murderer to which Dupin answers that the culprit is one with an unidentifiable voice, superhuman power, and agility, a penchant for butchery, and no significant motive. He says that no human could have so much power to stuff the daughter so firmly up the chimney, pull such great clumps of hair from the old lady's head, or slit the lady's throat with so much force from a razor. He also says that the old woman’s body was mangled which might have happened because she fell from the window of the fourth floor to the backyard. The police ignored it because they believed that the window was sealed. The narrator interjects and says that the culprit must be a madman. Dupin then shows him a few hairs that he collected from the fingers of Madame L'Espanaye. He says that the hair is of the culprit that Madam L-Espanaye caught while struggling against her. He says that the hair is not of any man.
Dupin then draws a sketch that exactly depicts the bruises and fingernail marks on the victim's throat. Dupin mentions that the fingernail impressions suggest that the throat of the victim was held and strangled by a huge hand, too large for a man. He then suggests that maybe it was the paw of an Orangutan. Dupin says that when the Orangutan was attacking the ladies, the other man, who probably was the owner of the Orangutan, shouted "Mon Dieu." He must have been horrified and probably tried to stop the Orangutan and save the ladies, but he failed.
Dupin then informs the narrator that he found a ribbon featuring a sailor's knot that is common among the Maltese. He says that the other man must be a sailor from Malta who own an Orangutan. He might have used the sailor’s knot to climb up the lighting pole. Thus, Dupin devices a plan. He issues an advertisement in the newspapers that says that he has taught an Orangutan and the owner may contact him to take the animal back. As expected, the French sailor arrives at the narrator’s mansion. As the sailor enters, Dupin locks the door from inside and then shows his pistol to the sailor and commands him to tell the truth about the deaths at the Rue Morgue. Dupin says that he believes that the Sailor too is innocent but it is a must for the sailor to confess what he witnessed to save Adolphe who has been wrongly accused of the double murder.
The French sailor admits that he caught an Orangutan in Borneo and he was expecting to sell it at a high price. The Orangutan once noticed the sailor shaving his beard by using a razor. On the same night, the Orangutan broke free and was holding the same razor. The sailor tried to control the Orangutan by using a whip but that angered the animal and it ran away. The sailor followed the Orangutan to the Rue Morgue and saw him climbing on the lighting pole from where it jumped into the fourth floor of the house of L’Espanaye. The sailor used a sailor’s knot and climbed up to the window, but he was slow. From the window, the sailor saw that the two women were arranging some papers into the iron safe when the Orangutan appeared and attacked the old woman with the razor and seized her hair. The girl was horrified and she fainted. As the old lady screamed in pain and horror, the Orangutan got enraged and he slit her throat and strangled the girl. The sailor shouted in disbelief and horror but his shout threatened the Orangutan too and in fear, the animal rampaged nervously, damaging the room and dragging the mattress from the bed. The Orangutan then shoved the body of the girl into the chimney and angrily threw the body of the old woman to the window from where the sailor was watching him. The sailor got away and climbed down through the lighting pole. The Orangutan too escaped out from the window before anyone could see it and the windows got locked back when it got out by the spring lock system.
Dupin takes the sailor to the police where he offers his statement. The police notice that neither Adolphe Le Bon, nor the sailor are culprits and they release them both. However, Monsieur G. Is embarrassed and he shouts at Dupin and tells him not to interfere in police matters again. Dupin ignores Monsieur G. and tells the narrator that the police Perfect is too cunning and ingenious, but he lacks analytical ability. Later on, the sailor recaptures the Orangutan and sells it to a zoo.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Fall of the House of Usher was a gothic short story written by Edgar Allan Poe that was first published in 1839 in Burton’s Gentleman’s Magazine. In 1840, it was republished in the short story collection by Edgar Allan Poe titled Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque.
The short story is a Gothic Dark Romantic short story with elements of isolation, madness, family, supernatural forces, death, and decadence.
Characters of The Fall of the House of Usher:
The story is told by an unnamed narrator. He receives a letter of urgency from his childhood friend. The narrator decides to be with his friend in the time of his need. When he reaches there, he describes the ghastly old house of his friend in great detail. He finds that his friend is suffering from nervousness and he is mentally sick. Roderick Usher is the friend of the narrator. He is the last living descendant, along with his sister, of the age-old family of Usher. The Usher family is famous for its strange temperaments, and for creating in these moods wonderful works of art, deeds of charity, and contributions to “musical science." The Ushers have never crossed their family line. Only one member of the Usher family has survived from generation to generation, thereby forming a direct line of descent without any outside branches. Thus Roderick and his sister are the direct descendent of Ancient Ushers. However, the Usher family is stricken with a peculiar temperament and mental illness that seems to run through their blood. Because of his illness, Roderick is allergic to sunlight. Roderick Usher spends his days inside his dark and cavernous mansion, avoiding sunlight or the smells of flowers. Madeleine Usher is Roderick’s sister who is suffering a mysterious illness that is cataleptic in nature. Roderick loves his sister too much and he is completely devoted to her well-being. The two are living with each other without spouses in their great family mansion. Madeline’s health is continuously deteriorating and her insanity is increasing but Roderick seems unable to bear the thought of her death.
Summary of The Fall of the House of Usher:
The story begins as the narrator describes that he is traveling on a horse in a dull part of the countryside on a grim day. He reaches an old mansion, a huge old house that appears frightening and ghostly. The narrator feels an insufferable feeling of dread but he continues to the house. The walls and windows of the house are bleak. The mansion is very old and has been used by the Usher family for the time unknown. Some parts of the mansion are fine but some others appear crumbling. Overall, the structure of the mansion appears robust and able to withstand many more decades. However, there is a single crack on the mansion going from top to bottom of the façade.
The narrator is unable to understand why he is feeling such unease. He thinks that perhaps if the parts of the scene were to be rearranged, their effect would be different, so he rides over to the “tarn” with some water nearby the house and looks at the inverted image of the house in the water, but this image is even more hideous.
He received an urgent letter from his childhood friend Roderick Usher who lives in this mansion. Roderick is suffering some illness and he sought the narrator’s company urgently. Though the two have been close friends since childhood, the narrator remembers that Roderick has a strangely reserved temperament. But the Usher family is known for their strange temperaments and they are known to be great patrons of arts and music and continue to help people through charity. The narrator tries to shake away the feeling of terror that he felt while observing the house. As he enters the house, he is greeted by a servant who takes him to the Usher’s studio.
On the way to Usher’s studio, the narrator sees various striking old images and objects on the tapestries and carvings on the walls. These images again fill him with a strange sense of gloom and terror. Finally, he reaches Usher’s studio whose windows are so high that they could not be reached. The windows are partially covered and hardly any light comes from the outside. The room is huge and dark and the narrator finds it difficult to see things but notices that the room is filled with tattered furniture and books and musical instruments.
Roderick Usher rises and warmly greets his friend. But the narrator realizes that Roderick has changed a lot. He is much paler and less energetic than he was in the past. Roderick informs that he is suffering from nervousness and fear. He has grown allergic to sunlight and cannot face it. Roderick informs that perhaps his health condition is genetic and his senses are heightened, he has become too sensitive and prone to allergies. The narrator himself has an ill feeling towards this old mansion and he notices that Roderick too is afraid of his old house.
Roderick informs that his sister Madeleine is suffering from a mysterious disease. The doctors are unable to diagnose her illness properly. Perhaps she is suffering from, catalepsy, the loss of control of one’s limbs that causes seizures and deathlike trances. Doctors have no cure for her. However, Roderick loves his sister too much. They have been living together in this age-old house for so long. Roderick says that though Madeline is very weak, she is still able to walk around a little. Right at that moment, the lady Madeleine passes through the room. The narrator sees her and her sight fills him with fear. Madeline goes to her room and the narrator sees that Roderick is weeping while worrying for her. The narrator assures Roderick that things will become better. However, Madeline suffers a seizure on the same day and is now bedridden, unable to move.
The narrator starts living in the mansion in a room alongside Usher’s studio.
The narrator continues his best to cheer him up. He listens to Roderick play the guitar and make up words for his songs, and he reads him stories, However, he fails to raise Roderick’s spirit and continues to suffer gloom. The narrator observes the paintings made by Roderick and praises him but he finds them very abstract and dreadful.
One day, Roderick sings the poem “The Haunted Palace” and then tells the narrator that he believes the house he lives in to be alive and that this sentience arises from the arrangement of the masonry and vegetation surrounding it. Further, Roderick believes that his fate is connected to the family mansion. Roderick says that the mansion itself is unhealthy and thus, he too is unhealthy.
Roderick informs the narrator that Madeline again suffered a seizure and died during the trance. Roderick decides to bury her temporarily in the tombs below the house. He doesn’t want to take her to the morgue because he fears that the doctors might dig up her body for scientific examination since her disease was so strange to them. The narrator helps Roderick in placing the body of Madeline in the tomb. He notices that Madeline had rosy cheeks and she appeared beautiful even in death. He suddenly realizes that Madeline and Roderick were twins. After that, Roderick becomes more uneasy and difficult to control. One night, a heavy storm engulfs the mansion. Roderick knocks on the doors of the room of the narrator as he is frightened and cannot sleep. Roderick takes him to a window from where they see a bright-looking gas surrounding the house. Roderick is frightened by that gas but the narrator says that it is a natural phenomenon and there is nothing uncommon.
The narrator tries to soothe Roderick down and starts reading a story to him. He reads “The Mad Trist” by Sir Launcelot Canning, a medieval romance novel. The story is about a knight named Ethelred who breaks into a hermit's dwelling in an attempt to escape an approaching storm, only to find a palace of gold guarded by a dragon. Ethelred slays the dragon with his mighty sword and the dragon falls down with a piercing shriek. As the narrator reads the forceful entry of Ethelred into the hermit’s place, he and Roderick hear a crackling sound coming from below the mansion. At first, the narrator ignores it but the strange sound continues to grow. As he reads the piercing shriek of the falling dragon, he hears a strong loud sound that he cannot ignore. He observes that Roderick is too afraid and has slumped over in his chair. Roderick says that he is hearing these sounds for a few days and he thinks that they might have buried Madeline alive. Maybe she didn’t die but was just suffering another death-like trance. He says that maybe Madeline is trying to escape. He then shouts that Madeline is standing right behind the door. Right at that moment, a strong wind forces the door open and the narrator sees that Roderick’s doubts were right. He sees Madeline standing at the door in white robes bloodied from her struggles. She awkwardly moves towards Roderick and attacks him. Roderick dies of fear. Madeline then tries to attack the narrator who runs away from the house, saving his life. As he comes out of the mansion, he sees that the whole mansion crumbles to the ground on the single crack on the facade of the mansion from top to bottom that he observed when he reached here.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
Hello and welcome to the Discourse. A&P is a tragicomic short story written by John Updike that was first published in The New Yorker on July 22, 1961. The story was later republished in the short story collection titled Pigeon Feathers in the same year that was published by Alfred A. Knopf Inc. In 1966, a short film was made on the short story that starred Sean Hayes and Amy Smart in lead roles.
The Title: A&P stands for The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company. It was an American chain of grocery stores that operated from 1859 to 2015. From 1915 through 1975, A&P was the largest grocery retailer in the United States.
Characters of A&P: Sammy is the narrator of the story. He is a nineteen years old boy working in the checkout line of an A&P store in a small New England town. He is an overconfident youth who believes that he can judge people based on how they dress and act and on what they buy. Queenie is a teenage girl who enters the A&P in her bathing suit. She is very attractive and though nobody knows her name, Sammy nicknames her as Queenie. Lengel is the strict by-the-books manager of A&P and he is a Sunday School teacher. He confronts the Queenie and other girls about their skimpy attire and embarrasses them. Stokesie is another checkout clerk at A&P. He is just a few years older than Sammy but he is already married and has two children. The girl in the Plaid Bikini is the second of the three girls who enter A&P in a bathing suit. She is beautiful but Sammy feels that her attractiveness is overshadowed by Queenie. The Big Tall Goony Goony is the third girl in a bathing suit who enters the A&P store. She is very tall and fat and appears to contrast with the beautiful demeanor of Queenie. McMohan is another guy working at the store.
Summary of A&P:
The story begins as the narrator is working in the checkout line of the local A&P store in a town in New England. He is Sammy, a 19-year-old boy. He is attending to a 50 years old woman while ringing the groceries for payment. He describes the woman as “a witch about fifty with rouge on her cheekbones and no eyebrows." It appears he is not very enthusiastic about his job and is getting bored. Suddenly, three young teenage girls in bathing suits enter the A&P store and Sammy gets distracted by their sight. First, he notices a ‘chunky’ girl who is wearing a green plaid Bikini. Sammy continues paying attention to her and analyzes her tan. As he is distracted, he accidentally rings up a pack of crackers twice. The aged woman notices his mistake and complains about it. Sammy pays attention to the groceries of the woman and once she leaves the A&P store, he concentrates on the three girls again.
He sees that the three girls are walking down an aisle. He observes that the bikini suit of the ‘chunky’ girl is new. Sammy doesn’t find her strikingly attractive. Then he observes the other girl who is tall and fat. He instantly dislikes her and nicknames her as the big tall goony goony. Finally, he notices the leader of these girls who is a self-possessed girl of medium height. Sammy notices a strange leading quality in her as she walks like a queen. Sammy nicknames her Queenie. Queenie walks deliberately and confidently looks straight forward while the other two girls follow her quietly. Sammy wonders why these girls entered A&P in their bathing suits.
Sammy notices that just like him, Stokesie is also admiring the girls and he too has eyes on Queenie. Sammy feels that Queenie already knows that he and Stokesie are ogling at her but she completely ignores them. Stokesie is another clerk at A&P. He is hardworking and responsible and he aspires to be the manager of A&P in the future. He is just a couple of ars elder than Sammy but he is already married and has two kids.
The three girls discuss something and the big tall goony goony girl picks up a pack of cookies. Sammy then pays attention to the other customers at A&P who are startled by these girls in ‘indecent clothes’ but soon turn their heads to their own carts. Sammy feels that soon someone will complain about these girls in indecent dresses as he sees some women glancing back at the three girls disapprovingly. Girls in bikinis can be a common sight on the beach but seeing them at A&P is disturbing to them. Sammy describes these women as "house slaves in pin-curlers."
Sammy informs that the town is situated very near a beach. Often women visiting the beach would come to A&P but they usually put on their shirts and shorts before entering the store. Furthermore, most of those women are old with several kids and hence, they create no scene at the store. However, these girls are unique. They are teenagers and they are flaunting their youth and attractiveness in their bathing suits.
The three girls go to the meat counter and ask for something. McMohan was managing the meat counter. He points the girls in a direction and as they move in that direction, he starts ogling them in a lewd manner. Sammy feels bad for the girls. As Sammy is working at the checking line, he expects to see the girls again. The three girls appear and they have to choose between Sammy’s or Stokesie’s register. However, an old man reaches Stokesie’s checking line first and Queenie decides to hand over her purchase to Sammy. Sammy notes that she bought a jar of fancy Herring snacks. Sammy tells her that the cost is 49 cents. Queenie pulls out a folded dollar bill from the cleavage in her top and Sammy feels elated by taking it in his hands.
At the same time, Lengel, the store manager enters the store. He is a strict manager who works by the book of rules. He is also a Sunday school teacher and prioritizes discipline over frivolousness. He observes that the girls in their indecent dresses are making a scene. He comes near and reprimands them. He humiliates them and says that “This isn’t the beach.” All the girls are ashamed and silent. Queenie tries to reason out and blushingly says that her mother told her to buy Herring snacks. Sammy gets startled by her voice. He starts thinking about her family and social class and thinks that she must belong to the rich high class and that her parents must have planned a fancy party where they would offer cocktails and herring snacks.
Lengel ignores Queenie’s excuse and continues to embarrass her. He repeats that ‘this is not the beach’ and they must dress decently before entering a public place like his store. Sammy finds it funny and he smiles at Lengel. Lengel doesn’t like Sammy smiling but ignores him and continues to shout at the girls. He sternly says that the next time they should be decently dressed before entering the store. Queenie strikes back and says that they are decent girls. Lengel says that he doesn’t want to argue but if they have to come into the store again, they must have their shoulders properly covered as it is the store’s policy. He then asks Sammy if he has already ringed the purchase of the girls to which Sammy answers that he hasn’t yet. He then rings the box of herring snacks and the girls rush out of the store after picking it up.
As the girls are going out, Sammy declares that he is quitting the job in a voice strong enough to make the girls listen to him. The girls ignore him and continue out of the store. Sammy then confronts Lengel and says that he didn’t have to embarrass the girls the way he did. Lengel says that the girls were embarrassing the store and were making other customers feel uncomfortable to which Sammy responds in a senseless manner saying "Fiddle-de-do." He then removes his store uniform and throws the bowtie and apron on the counter. Lengel tries to stop Sammy and says that he should rethink as he doesn’t want to do this to his poor parents and his rash decision will continue to harm him in the longer run. Sammy doesn’t listen and goes out of the store with his white shirt on. As he reaches out, he looks for the three girls but they have already vanished and he doesn’t know which way they go. Sammy looks back at the store and sees that Lengel himself is attending the checking line where he was working just a few minutes before. Sammy realizes that he has taken a hard decision and wonders how hard his future would be.
Themes of A&P: The story's major theme is the importance of appearance, and servitude to conformity. The girls appear strange and bizarre in store and Ligel reprimands them for not conforming to the social definition of decency. However, the girls prefer individual liberty and claim that despite their clothes, they are decent. Sammy appears to favor the concept of individual liberty and doesn’t like servitude to conformity. Ligel is absolutely right in objecting to their dresses as girls in bathing suits in a grocery store may offend other customers but he didn’t have any right to embarrass them. Another theme is the nature of power. Being the manager, he executes his power by reprimanding them and then warning Sammy of the consequences if he quits the job. He thinks that he has the power to humiliate people for wearing clothes that he thinks are indecent. However, the real power is executed by Sammy who decides to revolt against too much conformity that is marring his community. He stands for individual liberty, though he will have to face consequences.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was an Indian author, lawyer, diplomat, journalist, and politician who was awarded Padma Bhushan in 1974 and Padma Vibhushan in 2007. His first novel The Train to Pakistan was based on the Partition of India in 1947 and it proved to be his most renowned novel. In addition, he wrote many short stories. In 2013, a collection of his short stories was published which was titled “The Portrait of a Lady: Collected Stories.” This short story is autobiographical in which Khushwant Singh talked about his relationship with his grandmother during different phases of his life. He has beautifully drawn a pen- picture of her grandmother and describes the changes that came in their relationship after he went to the city and went abroad for higher studies. He pens down her daily activities and also describes her appearance creating an image in the reader’s mind. Ultimately, he describes her death.
Characters of The Portrait of a Lady:
The main character of the story is the grandmother of the narrator who happens to be the author of the story. She was a short, plump, and slightly bent, old lady with grey hair and a wrinkled face. She had a constant beautiful demeanor with a calm gentle and reassuring face. The narrator describes her as a “winter landscape in the mountains”. She was a religious lady who held her virtues. She spent most of her time in temples or reading scriptures and holy books. She had a beaded rosary and she never forgot to tell her prayers while counting the beads of the rosary. She had a deep connection with the narrator during his school days when he was in the village. But once the narrator and his family shifted to the city for his higher studies, he started spending lesser time with her. Gradually she became lonely. The narrator then went abroad for higher studies and his grandmother was left alone. She was very old and the narrator wasn’t sure if he will be able to see her again. But she kept living while spinning her charkha, feeding sparrows, and reciting her prayers. After five years, when the narrator returned, his grandmother welcomed him back by beating drums but soon she fell ill. It was her time to go.
Summary of The Portrait of a Lady:
The narrator informs that during his childhood, his parents were living in the city while he was staying at his parental village, living with his grandmother. His grandmother was a very strong and religious lady who never missed her prayer. She was very old with white hair that the narrator describes as silver locks. She was short, a little fatty, and slightly bent with a wrinkled face. The narrator had always seen her as an old woman and for him, it was difficult to imagine her in her younger days. The narrator’s grandfather is no more. He never saw him in person but he has seen his picture that hung above the mantelpiece in the drawing room. His grandfather used to wear loose clothes and in the picture, he too appears too old as if he is more than 100 years of age. He used to wear a big turban.
The narrator says that his grandmother had a bent back and she couldn’t walk straight but she always kept roaming around the house. While walking, she had to keep one hand on her waist while she always kept a beaded rosary in her other hand, continuously repeating her prayers.
The narrator says that her grandmother used to wear spotless white clothes and with her silver locks spread across her face, she used to appear like snowy mountains, true to her nature which was calm and content. The narrator had a good friendly relationship with his grandmother and when he was left with her in the village, she kept good care of her. She used to take him to the village school every day as it was very near to the village temple.
The grandmother routinely used to wake him up early in the morning and get him ready for school. Every day, she would take him to the school and while going to the school, they both sang prayers. The narrator loved her voice though he never learned the meaning of those prayers.
His grandmother was very careful about him and used to wash his slate and paint it with yellow chalk every day. She would then take an earthen pot with water and a reed pen. His grandmother used to give her stale chapatis with a little butter and sugar sprinkled over them for breakfast. While taking him to school, his grandmother would always keep some stale chapatis to feed the village dogs. The school was nearby the village temple and the priest was the teacher at the school. He would teach the alphabet and prayers to the children while the narrator’s grandmother used to spend her time in the temple, reading holy books.
As the narrator was growing old, his parents called them to the city so that he may pursue education at the municipality school in the city. As they shifted to the city, the relationship between the narrator and his grandmother became a bit distant because the municipality school was too far and she couldn’t go to the school with the narrator as he used to go with a motor bus. There were no dogs near their home so the grandmother started feeding sparrows and other birds.
The narrator was growing and he got busy with his education thus, they saw less of each other. Though she had immense interest in the narrator’s education, she could not help him in his lessons as he was learning English, the law of gravity, Archimedes’ principle, and many more such things which she could not understand. She often asked him what the teacher had taught him. She was displeased by knowing that they are not teaching religious scriptures at the school. The narrator once told that he was given music lessons she believed it to be indecent. To her, music had lewd associations and she considered music to be unsuitable for gentle folk.
After completing his school, the narrator went to the University for further studies. As he was growing older, he got a room of his own. This further alienated his grandmother. She didn’t complain but accepted her loneliness. She rarely spoke to anyone and spent most of her time in her room while spinning her charkha or reciting her prayers while counting the beads of her rosary. During the afternoon, she used to feed the sparrows. The sparrows had grown friendly to her and they would often perch on her shoulders and some even on her head but she never shooed them away. For her, it used to be the happiest hour of the day.
After completing his graduation, the narrator got a chance to go abroad for higher studies for five years. The narrator felt that this will upset his grandmother but to his surprise, she was not sentimental and she happily bid him and sent him away for his studies. She visited the railway station to see him off. She continued moving the beads of her rosary while reciting the prayers and before he left, she gently kissed the narrator at his head. She was too old by now and the narrator was not sure if he would ever be able to see her again as he was going away for five years.
However, when the narrator returned after five years, he found his grandmother at the railway station again who came to receive him. She held him in her arms. The narrator observed that though his grandmother was looking as old as she always was, she grew more religious, calm, and content. She continued reciting her prayers and the narrator could listen to her. Even on the day of his return, his grandmother didn’t forget to feed the sparrows and enjoyed her time with the birds. However, in the evening, something strange happened. For the first time, she didn’t pray. Rather she decided to invite women from the neighborhood. She was in the mood of celebration as her grandson had returned. She got an old drum and started to sing songs about the homecoming of warriors. The narrator and his parents tried to persuade her to stop and not to overstrain herself but she wouldn’t listen to them.
On the next morning, she fell ill. As the doctor came to check on her, he informed them that it was a minor fever. But the narrator’s grandmother insisted that it was her time to go. She was convinced that her end is near. She told everyone that she did not want to talk to anyone and would rather spend her last moments praying. She ignored everyone’s protests and started counting the beads in her rosary while praying.
After a short while, the narrator noticed that his grandmother’s lips stopped moving and the rosary fell from her lifeless fingers. She died a peaceful death. She was covered with a red shawl. When the narrator and others came to take her body for the funeral, they saw that a lot of sparrows had surrounded the grandmother’s body as if they gathered to mourn her death. All the sparrows were silent and appeared sad. The narrator’s mother offered some bread to the sparrows but they didn’t eat and quietly flew away after the grandmother’s body was carried away for the last rites.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Vanity of Human Wishes is a poem by Samuel Johnson that was first published in 1749. It is a 368-line long poem composed in 25 stanzas of varying length. All the lines are written in rhyming heroic couplets. It was Johnson’s second long poem after London and it was the first that he published under his name. The poem talks about the futility of human desires and ambitions and how political power, financial power, intellectual power, and even sexual power can offer no satisfaction or solace to anyone. The poet suggests that the only means to attain some worth is through the means of praying to God and that the antidote to vain human wishes is non-vain spiritual wishes. Johnson’s previous poem ‘London’ was the imitation of Juvenal’s Third satire and this poem is an imitation of Juvenal’s Tenth satire. The subtitle of The Vanity of Human Wishes is “The Tenth Satire of Juvenal Imitated”.
Juvenal satirized and mocked the victorious ways of the great General Hannibal in his satire while emphasizing that all his victories will go in vain. Samuel Johnson satirizes Charles XII of Sweden who too was a great warrior.
Sir Walter Scott, T. S. Eliot, Samuel Beckett, and many other authors of later periods stated that though they liked Samuel Johnson’s previous poem London, they absolutely loved The Vanity of Human Wishes and termed it as the greatest poem of Samuel Johnson.
Summary of The Vanity of Human Desires:
Stanza 1 Lines 1-20
The poem begins as the poet offers a wide view from China to Peru, as if extensively observing the whole world, and says that the observation is distressing. He sees that the whole of mankind is driven by "hope and fear, desire and hate,” while they hardly pay any attention to reason. He observes that these irrational emotions often lead people astray. The poet uses simile and says that people are often driven by pride, which misguides him like a "treacherous" phantom, or ghost, in the mist. He uses metaphor and describes fate as a ‘clouded maze.’ The poet says that entire nations fall and are destroyed because of schemes and decisions of power-hungry fools who are guided by their vengeance.
Stanza 2 Lines 21-28
The poet offers an example of gold to support his statement regarding the vanity of human wishes.
All human beings love gold, but gold is a ‘wide wasting pest’. It destroys everyone. The judge destroys the law to collect the gold, and people undertake crimes to collect the same gold. It is because of gold, criminals' record increases. The poet then says that no matter how rich we are, we can't buy truth or safety. On the contrary: more wealth brings with it more danger.
Stanza 3 Lines 29-36
The poet says that history teaches us that a vassal or a lowly person, or a hind has always cherished life in a better manner than a ‘lord’ because the lords are often busy while fighting with the ‘rival kings’ to increase or maintain power. The one who wins the power then twists the laws as per his wishes. While a lowly vassal is beneath the power, a rich traitor who strives for power, often reaches the ‘Tow’r’ (London’s Tower, the famous prison). A lowly person on the other hand sleeps peacefully in his small cottage even though the greedy vultures can confiscate whatever little the hind have.
Stanza 4 Lines 37-44
The poet then describes a poor happy-go-lucky traveler who has nothing to lose. He spends his time singing and cherishing the wilderness. The poet personifies ‘Envy’ and says that if envy seizes him he loses all his happiness because then, his only worry is how to gather more money. If his wealth increases, his peace gets destroyed. He no longer can sleep peacefully as he worries about being robbed. Even rustling leaves startles him and he is scared of shadows. He is afraid of the dark as it hides the thieves and he is afraid of light too because light shows what has been stolen from him.
Stanza 5 Lines 45-48
The poet says that everyone knows the ill-effect of wealth yet, people wish for more money. Everyone strives for gaining more money and power. They hardly realize the worries of a statesman or a politician who has to worry about his scheming rivals and who will inherit his title.
Stanza 6 Lines 49-68
Johnson invokes Democritus and says that during his time in Ancient Greece, the lack of worldly goods meant that people weren't so greedy. People were used to doing hard work that crushed their arrogance. He asks Democritus to observe and mock the current life in Britain where everyone is greedy, money-hungry, and arrogant. The poet continues to mock British society where fake debates are held with no constructive result. Mayors and statesmen are elected and inaugurated in their office with too many rituals and fanfare. The British society is so corrupt that the statesmen change laws as per their liking and the courts judge a case before hearing all the evidence. The poet says that if Democritus sees all that is happening in Britain, he will attack British society with his wits and criticism. He will teach that pleasure and pain, joys and sorrows are just toys that must not affect a human too much. The ‘robes of pleasure’ and ‘veils of woe’ are meaningless to Democritus.
Stanza 7 Lines 69-72
In these lines, the poet observes that even during ancient times, Democritus was full of scorn for people and humankind in general, and his scorn was justified. If we observe what people desire and wish for, we would see they deserve scorn.
Stanza 8 Lines 73-90
In this stanza, the poet continues to criticize people as he feels that they are too much concerned about wealth and power. However, troublemakers and enemies continue to hound them and they never feel safe. The powerful people are hated because of their corruption and when then they lose everything, they are mocked and insulted. Powerful people get their portraits hanged on palladiums and walls but people’s hatred becomes the reason for the fall of that wall.
Stanza 9 Lines 91-98
The poet wonders if Britain as a society wake up to his call and vanquish its enemies, those who are greedy and power-hungry? Or will Britain support and safeguard those corrupt favorites? The poet observes that those British who pretend to be the defender of freedom, never talk of the corruption of nobles, kings, and politicians. They are weak-willed and unable to stand against corrupt ways.
Stanza 10 Lines 99-120
In this stanza, Samuel Johnson begins to give examples of historical figures as a way of providing evidence for his views. He begins with Cardinal Thomas Wolsey to justify the vanity of human wishes. He wanted to acquire power after power so that everyone submits in front of his will. But once he reached the power everyone hates him. He did not get any followers nor did he get any warmth and affection from people. The desire for absolute power leads him to public hatred and dislike. Then Wolsey is oppressed by age and worries and illness, and so he seeks to recover by leading a monastic life. But his grief makes his illness worse. The memory of all his mistakes stings him. And with his last breath, he reproaches (criticizes) treacherous kings. It's not a good way to go out.
Stanza 11 Lines 121-128
The poet questions the reader directly and asks if they would prefer Wosley’s power and wealth that resulted in his certain downfall and pitiful death?
Stanza 12 Lines Lines 129-134
In this stanza, the poet remembers other historical figures who were power-hungry and greedy and mentions how they faced their downfall. Villiers ended up killed by an assassin. Harley died of disease. Wentworth ended up murdered. Hyde was exiled. All of these political figures ended their lives in misfortune because their desire for great power was indulged, even though these men were protected by kings and allied to them.
Stanza 13 Lines 135-164
Samuel Johnson discusses the life of academics, writers, and scholars in this stanza. He recounts his own experiences. When a student is first enrolled in college, he leaves his easy life in search of scholarly fame. The student tries to fill the Bodleian Library at Oxford University with his works. He pursues to surpass the talent of Sir Roger Bacon, the famous philosopher. The poet mentions the popular belief that the Bridge made in the name of Roger Bacon will collapse when a scholar greater than Bacon makes his way under it. The poet hopes that the students will lead a virtuous life and explore the truth. However, the poet says that the student faces a lot of troubles, temptations, and obstacles in their pursuit of knowledge. Bad delights, praise, difficulties, and laziness often slow them down. The poet says that a student’s heart must be hopeful but often they fall in grief and danger. He says that students must accept the truth that just like others, they cannot evade the doom that is destined for mankind. Once the students accept that misfortune and grief are a part of life, they can become fully wise. A scholar’s life is full of dangers including too much hard work, envy, failure, patrons, and jail. The poet says that a scholar must be open to any such difficulties. A scholar must not delude himself from praise and if he is too hopeful, he must remember Lydial's life and Galileo's death.
Stanza 14 Lines 165-174
In these lines, the poet says that even if a scholar succeeds in his scholarly struggles, he must not forget that his enemies and haters will also gain success and will gain equal prestige and fame. Johnson gives an example of William Laud, a learned man who was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633-45. He was executed in 1645 by his enemies—the Parliamentarians. The poet says that those with ‘meaner minds’ get minor punishment but the geniuses like William Laud suffer harsher punishments.
Stanza 15 Lines 175-190
In this stanza, the poet talks about Brave people and mentions Alexander the Great as “rapid Greek.” He mentions the great victories of the Romans and British rulers. Then he says that the actions of ‘Brave’ men were not guided by virtues and goodness, but they were eager and greedy for fame and power, they didn’t care about being good. The poet personifies ‘Reason’ and says that when Reason observes these ‘brave men’ he frowns upon them because, for their personal grandiose and fame, they brought whole nations to poverty and debt. While the wreaths for celebrating their victories at war decay soon, the pile of debt that they accumulate to be paid by the poor people of their nation doesn’t disappear so soon.
Stanza 16 Lines 191-222
The poet supports the vanity of human wishes with the example of Charles XII, the Swedish king who wanted to conquer the whole world. He had the desire to accumulate all the properties of the world. But having conquered the world he had to end up in the barren land. His desire for power and property leads him to death.
Stanza 17 Lines 223-240
In these lines, the poet confirms his statement about warlords by criticizing the warriors from the past. He mentions Persia's tyrant" (Xerxes) and "Bavaria's lord" the Roman king. The poet criticizes Xerexes as hostile and barbaric who was too greedy for power over others and got mad about it. At last, the Greeks confronted him and ridiculed his show of power.
Stanza 18 Lines 241-254
The poet ridicules Charles Albert, or Charles VII, the "bold Bavarian" who tried to get the throne of Austria. A woman named Maria Theresa raised an army of Croatian fighters and Hungarian horsemen to defeat him badly. Charles Albert was then ridiculed by his enemies and criticized by his own people. He died in ignominy and shame.
Stanza 19 Lines 256-282
In this stanza, the poet criticizes those who desire long lives. They do not realize that a longer life means more misery. The poet says that "Life protracted is protracted woe" because Time is the problem that destroys everything and takes away all possibilities of happiness. With time, even food and wine become tasteless and no luxury could soothe us. Even music cannot heal the troubles of time as old people fail to hear anything even if Orpheus the great Greek musician comes and play music for them. With age, the ability to reason also diminishes, and older people become senile and reach insanity.
Stanza 20 Lines 283-290
The poet says that with time, our body ages and becomes weaker. Many illnesses invade an old man’s body making him incapable but his greed to live more never ceases. He continues to lose everything he had accumulated and then dies penniless.
Stanza 21 Lines 291-298
In this stanza, the poet says that a moderate, healthy, and active life would be better than a long, unhealthy, sick life. He says that one should wish for a life in which he is free from scorn and crime. A person living moderate life enjoys better sleep and a clear conscience. The poet says that everyone would like to live a peaceful and happy life and no one would like to have an end to it.
Stanza 22 Lines 299-310
In this stanza, the poet says that even in a moderate life, things will continue to deteriorate. Even this peaceful life is plagued by misfortune. With each new day, there's a new sorrow: a sister might get sick or a daughter might be sad. A person living a peaceful life will also suffer the fear of death. Gradually, all joy of a moderate life also evaporates because nature brings changes and our viewpoints too change with them.
Stanza 23 Lines 311-318
In this stanza, the poet mentions some people from the past who lead a peaceful moderate life but suffered misery and troubles during the latter half of their life. He mentions "Lydia's monarch" (Croesus) who was visited by the Athenian wise man Solon. He mentions the Duke of Marlborough, who lead a good moderate life but then suffered strokes in his old age and was paralyzed later in his life until he died. Johnson also mentions the writer Jonathan Swift, who suffered ill health toward the end of his life.
Stanza 24 Lines 319-341
In this stanza, the poet describes the vanity of feminine beauty that appears to bring pride and happiness. He says that every mother wishes her child to be beautiful as beauty will bring happiness to her. However, the poet mentions the example of Lady Vane who became a mistress to King George II's son, Frederick. She was very beautiful but her beauty only brought troubles to her. Similarly, he mentions Catherine Sedley who became the mistress of King James II because she was very beautiful. But she had to suffer the anger and curse of her father Sir Charles Sidley who didn’t like King James II. The poet then criticizes young ladies who pursue luxuries and romance while ignoring knowledge and wisdom. He says that these ladies are vain, and they smile to manipulate and are interested in the latest romantic fashions. They ignore the voice of virtue and goodness, and they throw pride and prudence to the wind. Soon they find themselves the subject of scandals, gossip, and rumors.
Stanza 25 Lines 342-368
After criticizing all possible ways a man may try to look for satisfaction and happiness, the poet questions what is the correct way of finding satisfaction? In the concluding part of the poem, Johnson suggests developing the right frame of mind. We should not complain about anything. We should control our passion and will and be loving and mindful of mankind and that is sufficient for our happiness. The only way to get happiness is through God. The poet says that we can raise our voices to ask for good, but we have to leave it to Heaven to work things out for us. The poet ends the poem with the message that only true happiness is possible through prayers.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.
