The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle by Tobias Smollett | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle is a Picaresque novel by Tobias Smollett that was first published in 1751 and then republished in 1758. A Picaresque novel is an early form of novel with a first-person narrative, relating the adventures of a rogue or lowborn adventurer as he drifts from place to place and from one social scene to another in his effort to survive. The word Picaresque comes from Spanish Picaro which means a cynical rogue person. A Picaresque novel resembles medieval romances of chivalry but unlike the idealistic knight-errant hero of medieval chivalry, the Picaro is a cynical and amoral rascal who, if given half a chance, would rather live by his wits than by honorable work. A picaresque novel essentially involves satirical elements to highlight the ills of society.

The novel is a satire of human cruelty, stupidity, and greed. In addition, Smollett also caricatured many of his contemporaries and their works in this novel including author Henry Fielding and actor David Garrick. In addition, Smollett also satirized the medical profession while Smollett himself was a surgeon. The novel also contains a lengthy independent story called "The Memoirs of a Lady of Quality", written by Frances Vane, Viscountess Vane. This story follows the romantic adventures of an anonymous noblewoman. This narrative is in the amatory fiction genre and describes a series of love affairs the heroine has with a variety of titled men.

The novel inspired later novelists including Charles Dickens who based the character of Wemmick, the closed-off but secretly gentle assistant to the vicious lawyer Mr. Jaggers in Great Expectations, on Trunnion.

Characters of Peregrine Pickle:

Peregrine Pickle is a young troubled man who is rejected by his cruel mother, ignored by his indifferent father, and hated by his degenerate brother. He is adventurous, mischievous, highly selfish, and unwilling to acknowledge morality. Gamaliel Pickle is Peregrine’s father and Sally Appleby is his mother. Grizzle is Peregrine’s aunt, sister of Gamaliel. Commodore Hawser Trunnion is Peregrine’s uncle who adopts him and spoils him. Trunnion is a rich eccentric retired sea captain who treats and manages his house as a warship. Lieutenant Hatchway and Tom Pipes are Trunnion’s old crew members who live with Trunnion at his home. Emilia Gauntlet is a beautiful young heiress who falls in love with Peregrine. Godfrey Gauntlet is Emilia’s brother. He doesn’t like Perigrine and opposes Emilia’s relationship with him.

Summary of Peregrine Pickle:

Gamaliel Pickle is the son of a rich London merchant and inherits a huge fortune. However, Gamalial himself is no good at business. He decides to retire from business and live on the interest of his fortune rather than risk his principal in the uncertainties of trade. He lives with his sister Grizzle in a huge mansion and his neighbor is eccentric old seaman Commodore Hawser Trunnion. Gamalial picks the eyes of Sally Appleby who seduces him and marries him for his money. Sally soon becomes the dominating force in the house who abuses Gamalial and Grizzly. Sally takes such a dislike to Grizzle that she tries in every way possible to embarrass and humiliate her sister-in-law.

After some time, Sally becomes pregnant and gives birth to Peregrine Pickle, her first son. Sally naturally dislikes Peregrine and treats him the same way she treats Gamalial and Grizzle. Meanwhile, Grizzly realizes that she is no more needed in her brother’s house and tries to woo Trunnion. Trunnion is a rich old man who desires an heir. Trunnion lives with his two old mates Lieutenant Hatchway, a one-legged old veteran, and Tom Pipes. He is a misanthrope and misogynist. Yet, Grizzly succeeds in breaching his obstinacy and marries him. Being old, Trunnion desires an heir. Grizzly and Trunnion try to have a baby but Grizzly fails to become a mother. Trunnion observes that Peregrine is being ill-treated by his mother while his father Gamalial is indifferent and subservient to his wife. Trunnion grows a liking for Peregrine whom he finds smart and independent. When Sally gives birth to her second son, her behavior towards Peregrine becomes further cruel. The younger Pickle too despises Peregrine. Peregrine grows into a headstrong, rebellious boy who shows his high spirits in pranks that mortify and irritate his parents. He is sent away to school, and he rebels against his foolish and hypocritical teachers; at last, he writes to the Commodore to request removal from the school. The Commodore feels pity for the boy and admires his spirit of independence, so he takes him out of school and adopts him as his son and heir.

Trunnion indulges Peregrine’s every whim and spoils him in all possible ways and he turns out to be a spoiled rich brat which means that Peregrine can do whatever he wants with no repercussions. He often indulges in playing cruel pranks on those around him. He makes up some friends who encourage him in his misadventures. One day, Peregrine and his friends steal a peasant’s fruit and then beat the man to death when he objects, laughing to realize that now his family will have to become beggars. Trunnian realizes that he cannot continue to bear Peregrine’s pranks and escapades and thus, he decides to send him to Winchester School. Tom Pipes accompanies him as a guardian. At Winchester School, Peregrine meets Emilia Gauntlet, a young heiress of a rich family. He falls in love with her and this changes his behavior as he grows serious towards his studies. However, Emilia’s brother Godfrey Gauntlet doesn’t like Perigrine and he opposes Emilia being friendly with him. In one instance Godfrey and Perigrine indulge in an angry debate and Godfrey challenges him for a duel. Perigrine tries to shy away but Godfrey insists. First Godfrey proposes a fight with swords but then he offers a fight with pistols if Perigrine is comfortable with that. Perigrine declines using pistols and they fight with swords. In the end, the swords of both of them get broken without hurting anyone of them seriously, yet, the argument between the two persists.

After his school, Trunnian sends Peregrine to Oxford for higher studies. Peregrine continues his pranks at the University too. After graduating, Peregrine travels around Europe and Turrian funds his Grand Tour. Peregrine especially likes Paris and spends a lot of time there where chases women, overindulges in alcohol, and participates in a variety of pranks.

He meets an English painter in Paris who is facing a charge and has been sent to the Bastille for some trifling offense and is about to be released, Peregrine and his friends, playing on his ignorance of the language, let him think he has been sentenced to be broken on a wheel. A little later they tell him that his punishment has been commuted to castration.

After spending enough time on his tour, he returns to England and continues his pranks while living as a con man. In London, he siphons money from wealthy high-society people with the help of a fake magician who pretends to read fortunes. Later, in the resort town of Bath, he pretends to be a doctor while cheating common people. He continues his romance with Emilia and at this point, Tobias Smollett added an independent story titled “The Memoirs of a Lady of Quality,” written by the memoirist Frances Vane, Viscountess Vane, this is an independent story that follows the romantic adventures of an anonymous noblewoman. This narrative is in the amatory fiction genre and describes a series of love affairs the heroine has with a variety of titled men. This story has nothing to do with Peregrine or Emilia.

When Tobias returns to Peregrine, we learn that he continues his pranks as a con man but his fortune turns and out of greed, his own friends swindle away all his money. After losing all of his money, he falls into debt and since he cannot pay his debt, he is imprisoned in the Fleet debtor's prison. During his time in prison, he gets some time for introspection and it appears as if he is repenting. However, he fails to find a way out of the prison. His fortune turns again as his father Gamaliel Pickle dies away and he suddenly and unexpectedly inherits 80,000 pounds. Peregrine repents his terrible behavior and promises to live the rest of his life in a less destructive and antisocial way. He promises to be an honest and morally sound citizen. His changed behavior helps him in marrying Emilia.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Adventures of Roderick Random by Tobias Smollett | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Tobias Smollett was a British Scottish surgeon, writer, novelist, and playwright. He was born in 1721 and died in 1771. He is known for his picaresque novels including The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748), The Adventures of Peregrine Pickel (1751), and The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771).

The Picaresque novel is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the adventures of a roguish but "appealing hero", usually of low social class, who lives by his wits in a corrupt society. It is a genre that doesn’t use a continuous plot line, but instead strings together various adventures or episodes from the life of its protagonist to satirize or illuminate something about the surrounding culture. What this often means is that the protagonist doesn’t evolve or progress along an arc, the way we now expect novel characters to do. Rather, the character stumbles from scene to scene unchanged, mostly as a way for the author to display, satirize, and mock the ins and outs of different kinds of social circles, power structures, or cultural morals or ethics.

The Adventures of Roderick Random was Tobias Smollett’s first novel which was published in 1748. It is loosely based on Smollett’s experiences in the British Navy in 1741 and thus, it is often termed a semi-autobiographical work.

Characters of Roderick Random:

Roderick Random is the titular character of the novel who is the son of a Scottish gentleman and a low-class woman. He is the narrator of the story and he is nicknamed as Rory. His father abandons him at an early age. Hugh Strap is a friend of Rory. He is a common innocent man, an apprentice of a barber. Hugh and Roderick used to study at the same school during their childhood. During his visit to France, Hugh Strap adopts a new name "Monsieur d'Estrapes." Narcissa is a gentlewoman belonging to a rich noble family. She falls in love with Roderick but her squire brother opposes their relationship. Tom Bowling is a cousin of Roderick’s dead mother and maternal uncle of Roderick. He is a sailor who tries to support and help Roderick from time to time. Captain Oakum is the captain of the ship Thunder that Roderick joins as a surgeon’s mate. Oakum hates Roderick and abuses him.

Summary of Roderick Random:

The story is narrated by Roderick himself. His father was a Scottish gentleman who fell in love with a poor low-class girl from England and married her. His father’s high-class family is ashamed of the son’s marriage to a woman from low society and subsequently shuns Roderick’s parents. His father dutifully helps his wife and soon she gives birth to their son Roderick Random. However, his mother dies soon after giving birth to him leaving his father overwhelmed by grief. Lost and with no family left to financially support him, Roderick’s father flees and abandons his only son.
Roderick is an orphan now as his paternal grandfather refuses to take the child into his custody. Yet, his paternal grandfather offers him the minimal amount of support necessary. The grandfather secures Roderick a free education at a local school in Scotland in an attempt to uphold the family’s nobility.

Roderick is a brilliant student at school who excels in all subjects but is badly treated by his teachers, tutors, and schoolmasters who abuse him because his mother belonged to the lower class. Instead of helping him, his tutor tries to discourage him in his studies yet, Roderick learns Latin, French, Greek, and Italian. He becomes popular among his peers yet his school masters continue to abuse him as a whipping boy and a punishment model, even when he’s done nothing wrong. He grows a close friendship with Hugh Strap. His tutor hates him and doesn’t stop until he gets Roderick expelled from the school. Soon he learns about the death of his grandfather and he is left to take care of himself.

Even in such a dire situation, he gets support from his maternal uncle Tom Bowling but since Thomas Bowling is a sailor in the Navy, he is unable to remain present with Roderick. He ensures that Roderick’s education continues and arranges for his admission to a university. After some years, Tom Bowling gets expelled from the Navy and then he fails to help Roderick monetarily.

Roderick has grown up quite smart by this time and uses his wit, intelligence, and charm to survive. Soon he begins a series of international journeys to experience different types of people and their lifestyles from all social classes. He visits Bath, France, West Africa, and the West Indies. Being poor with no support, he continues to suffer malice and discrimination. On his return, he reaches London but doesn’t like the city as he finds it incredibly dirty and ridden with crime. Yet, he gets a job as an apprentice to a surgeon and soon he impresses his surgeon master so much that the surgeon recommends his name to be his assistant in the Navy.

Roderick continues to meet different people from the high class. He begins working for a chemist who introduces him to Miss Williams who seems to be impressive and rich. Roderick falls for her and tries to woo her but soon learns that she is a prostitute seeking a more comfortable life. This discourages Roderick as he is seeking a wealthy woman who will finally afford him security. Despite all his wits and charm, Roderick is still naive and whatever little money he earns as the apprentice of the surgeon and the chemist, is robbed away by swindlers and sharpers.

Now when he again is penniless, he gets abducted by the sea pirates owning the ship Thunder. When they learn that Roderick is a recommended surgeon apprentice, they force him to join the crew. He joins a ship Thunder on their journey to Jamaica as a surgeon’s mate, but the trip is terrible as they encounter bad weather. Furthermore, the commanding officer Captain Oakum despises him. One day, Captain Oakum overhears Roderick and another surgeon’s mate criticizing him and gets enraged. The Captain punishes Roderick brutally and tries to hang him. When other crew members interrupt, he says that he believes Roderick is a spy as he has notes written in Greek in his notebook. The other crew members somehow manage to cool down the Captain’s temper and Roderick survives. Somehow the ship Thunder reaches an island where Roderick leaves the ship. Soon he finds another Lizard vessel on the return journey to England. On the ship Lizard, Roderick meets Hugh Strap again who is returning from his visit to France. Roderick gets relief after seeing a friend after so many days. Furthermore, the captain of the ship Lizard too likes Roderick. Hugh informs him that he made good money in France and he even changed his name to Monsieur d’Estrapes. The captain of the ship is old and he dies during the journey and then Lieutenant Crampley takes control of the ship. He, too, hates Roderick, and once the ship arrives in England, the crew beats and robs him. An old lady was watching all this from a distance and when the crew goes away leaving Roderick in the dirt, she visits him and helps him. She informs him that her name is Mrs. Sagely. Roderick asks her to help him in getting a job and she introduces him to a rich family looking for a helping man, Roderick meets Narcissa, the young girl belonging to that rich family and soon falls in love with her. He woos Narcissa with his wit and charm and she too starts liking him. However, her elder brother, who is a squire is opposed to her relationship with Roderick who is a poor low-class man.

Suddenly, Roderick learns the whereabouts of his estranged father who went to Argentina after abandoning him and made a huge fortune. His father meets him gleefully but they fail to warm up their relationship because of the ill memories of the past. Yet, Roderick gets a good amount of money from his father as an inheritance which enables him to have a secure, comfortable life. With the help of his newly acquired wealth, he manages to marry Narcissa without her brother’s consent.

Analysis of Roderick Random:

Smollett portrayed a vicious cycle of hypocrisy, greed, deceit, and snobbery in this novel which was common in England during that period. He used this novel to expose the brutality, incompetence, and injustice of the Royal Navy of England at the Battle of Cartagena in 1741 when he was a part of the Navy. In addition, he raised issues of privateering, slavery, prostitution, the dowry system, the inhumanity of debtor’s prisons, homosexuality, and corruption in political and art circles and in the area of medicine.

Tobias Smollett is often considered the pioneer of Picaresque novels whose style impressed and influenced later novelists including Dickens, Melville, and Thackeray.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Tiger in The Tunnel by Ruskin Bond | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Tiger in the Tunnel is a recent story written by Ruskin Bond that was published in 2019. The story is based on the theme of honesty, courage, family values, and the commitment to honor duty, service, tradition, and legacy. The story depicts the clash between a courageous man bound to his duty and a wild tiger. Taken from his Collected Short Stories collection the story is narrated in the third person by an unnamed narrator.

Characters of The Tiger in The Tunnel:

Baldeo is the main character of the story, a middle-aged man. He lives with his wife and children. He has a small farm. He doesn’t make much through farming and thus to aid his family he tries to get a job in Indian Railways. He is given the job of a watchman. He is very happy. He immediately takes up the job. He considers it to be a blessing. His main job is to keep track of a tunnel and give signals to trains before they pass through it. The train has to slow near a turning and then enter a tunnel. Baldeo has to make sure that this tunnel is free from any obstacles. Baldeo is very sincere and he enjoys his job. Tembu is the other important character of the story. He is a twelve-year-old teenage son of Baldeo who lives with his parents and a younger sister. Tembu is a curious and courageous boy who likes to accompany and help his father at his job.

Summary of The Tiger in The Tunnel:

The story revolves around a twelve-year-old boy named Tembu who lives with his father Baldeo, mother, and younger sister in a tribal village on the outskirts of a jungle forest in India. His father is a poor farmer who owns a small rice field. However, Baldeo fails to earn enough through farming, and as his children are growing old and hence, he joins Indian Railways as a watchman at a nearby railway station to aid his family with extra income. In the jungle near the railway station, there is a long dark tunnel cut into the rock through which trains pass through. The train has to slow near a turning and then enter a tunnel. Baldeo’s duty is to make sure that this tunnel is free from any obstacles. He is provided a bare hut near the tunnel where he stays at night. His duty is to keep the signal lamp burning and make sure that the tunnel is clear of obstruction so that the overland mail can pass through safely. His son Tembu is a curious growing kid who likes to watch trains as they pass through. Often Tembu would accompany his father to his job at the railroad, sleeping with him in the hut.

In the village, rumors of a wild man-eating tiger are making rounds. Some people have seen the tiger attacking the cattle and they say that the tiger has attacked some lonely persons too. Winter is coming and the nights are beginning to be cold. One night, Baldeo goes to the hut in the jungle to perform his duty and as usual, Tembu accompanies him. Tembu awakens close to midnight and sees that his father is preparing to leave to check the signal lamp and the tunnel. Tembu asks if he should go with Baldeo.

Baldeo is worried as he has heard tales of the famous man-eating tiger who is known to frequent the area, but he has neither seen nor heard it so far during his nightly treks. Yet he decides to keep Tembu away from any probable danger in the safety of the hut. Thus, when Tembu asks him if he could go with him to the tunnel, he responds that it is cold outside and that the boy should stay in the shelter of the hut.

Baldeo is aware of the possible danger but he confidently goes out alone through the darkness. He is used to the ways of the jungle and for his safety, he has taken a small axe that was given to him by his father. He is confident in his ability to face any danger. The axe is small and ‘fragile to look at but deadly when in use.’The axe, which his father made for him, is an extension of himself, and he is capable of wielding it with great skill against wild animals.

Soon Baldeo reaches the tunnel and finds that the signal light is out. He takes down the lantern, reignites it, and then puts it back in the position where it could signal clearance to the upcoming train. At the hut, Tembu listens to some low-distant rumbles. He is excited about the train and wakes up as he waits for the train to pass and for Baldeo to return.

Before going back, Baldeo enters the tunnel to check if there is any obstacle. As he returns to the entrance, he feels the ground is trembling and he realizes that the train is about to come. As Baldeo is about to exit the tunnel, a tiger suddenly appears at the entrance of the tunnel and approaches toward Baldeo. He knows that the tiger is a man-eater. He cannot run away because the tiger can run very fast. Undeterred, Baldeo stands firmly with his back to the signal post and braces to use his ax. When the tiger attacks he evades to a side and digs his ax in the tiger’s shoulder.

The unexpected attack rattles the tiger and it gets enraged and attacks Baldeo again. Baldeo dodges again and drives his axe through the tiger’s shoulder, almost severing the leg. This time, though, the axe remains embedded in the bone, and Baldeo is left without a weapon.

The tiger is in great agony as he roars in pain and jumps on Baldeo again who is now weaponless. This time, Baldeo fails to dodge the tiger who tears Baldeo apart with his paws. The tiger too is very tired and lethally wounded. The tiger sits down to lick his wounded leg and in its pain, the tiger fails to realize that the train is about to enter the tunnel. The tiger tries to come out through the entrance but there is no space left as the train enters the tunnel. Trapped, the tiger runs into the tunnel as fast as its wounded leg will carry it. The noise is deafening as the train follows, but when the train exits on the other side, there is only silence. The train driver notices the headlamps of the train at the next stop and finds a large portion of the tiger’s body cut in half by the engine, trapped just above the train's cowcatcher.

Meanwhile, Tembu realizes that the train has passed for a long but his father has not returned yet so he decides to go to the tunnel where he finds the dead body of his father, ripped apart by the tiger. The crying child remains with his father’s corpse all night to protect it from scavenging animals like hyenas. The next morning, when Baldeo and Tembu do not return to the village, Tembu’s mother and younger sister visit the hut in the jungle and when they check the tunnel, they come to know about the demise of Baldeo. The family grieves his death for a few days but life is to go on. Now when Baldeo is no more, the financial responsibilities must be taken over by Tembu and his mother. The next week, Tembu is given the same job given to his father. Tembu returns to the tunnel and continues in his father’s shoes. Devoted to his father’s legacy, he ensures that the signal light is always lit and clears all the obstructions in the tunnel. He also wields the same ax, a tribute to his late father and the commitment to protect his family. Tembu, unafraid and determined, becomes the new protector of his family.

Analysis of The Tiger in The Tunnel:

One of the main themes of the story is the protection of the family. Baldeo realizes the dangers at night in the jungle when the rumors about the man-eating tiger are ripe and thus he ensures that Tembu remains in the safety of the hut. After his father’s death, Tembu suddenly finds himself in the shoes of his father, the protector of the family, and decides to take on his job as the watchman. Another important theme is courage. Baldeo realizes that trying to run away from the tiger will be futile as he cannot outrun the tiger and he courageously encounters the tiger had he not lost his axe, he might have come out of the tunnel alive. After Baldeo’s death, Tembu is aware of all the possible dangers associated with the job of watching the tunnel, yet he accepts the job courageously and proudly performs the same duties that his father used to perform.

Tembu and his family appear to be living in a male-dominated society. Though Tembu is just twelve years old, he is still a male and thus, after the death of his father, he is expected to take responsibility as the provider of the family.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Tunnel by Ruskin Bond | Themes, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. 'The Tunnel' is a short story written by Ruskin Bond that was included in his novella titled The Road to the Bazaar and was first published in 1980. The subtitle of the story is ‘Calmness in Commotion.’ The story is based on the themes of curiosity, friendship, dedication, innocence, care and respect. The short story, The Tunnel, is placed in the foothills of the Himalayas, where train passing is possible. Some distance from Dehradun lies a small village, and some distance from that village, up in the hills, through the forest, goes a railway line. The railway line has one tunnel.

The story is narrated in the third person by an unnamed narrator who talks about a teenage boy and his experiences with a railway watchman.

Characters of The Tunnel

Ranji is a teenage boy who is very curious about nature and surroundings. He is an innocent yet brave child. Ranji is very fascinated by trains. He travels from his home to the countryside to look at the train pass. Watching trains move past him appears to be his favorite source of enjoyment. Kishan is a forty-five-year-old man who is the protagonist of the story. He works as a watchman for the railways and shoulders the duty of inspecting and taking care of a tunnel through which the trains pass. Kishan lives in a small hut and he loves and respects nature, the jungle, and its inhabitants, including the wild animals. Kishan is a very honest man devoted to his responsibility of inspecting the tunnel to safeguard both humans and forest inhabitants.

Summary of The Tunnel:

Ranji is a teenage boy who lives in a small town. He likes to watch moving trains and would often visit the nearby village to witness the steam engine come out blazing through the tunnel. One day, while walking through the village, he meets the railway's watchman appointed to take care of the tunnel who lives in a small hut near the tunnel. Ranji feels an exciting sense of freshness at his hut which is surrounded by margold flowers and a vegetable garden.

Being curious enough, Ranji develops a rapport with Kishan who appears to be friendly. Kishan advises him about the life in jungle and the probable dangers that one may come across. Ranji learns that Kishan deeply loves and respects nature, the jungle, and its inhabitants. Ranji asks him how he manages to live alone in the jungle to which Kishan answers that he prefers the company of the animals in the jungle to the people he might encounter in town. Kishan mentions how he was robbed and fooled by a pick-pocket once he visited the town and since then he preferred to avoid going to the town as he feels safer in the jungle than being around other men.

Kishan tells him that he must inspect the tunnel twice a day. Two trains, one at day, the second one at night pass through that tunnel. He must make the tunnel clear of manageable obstacles like small stones or wild animals. For the day train, he waves a red flag if he finds anything objectionable in the tunnel. At night, he waves the lantern if something is wrong in the tunnel. If everything is fine, he does nothing and relaxes in his small hut.

Ranji learns that Kishan deeply likes and respects the jungle and nature and it is for this reason he feels safe in the jungle. Kishan tells him that he does not bother the animals in the jungle as he is a visitor to their home. Kishan says that he not only safeguards humans traveling in the train by making sure that the tunnel is free from any obstacle but also, he protects the wild animals that may stray away on the railway track in the tunnel. He mentions how he once saved a leopard who got stuck in the tunnel while a train was about to pass through it. Kishan says that he took an axe with him as he couldn’t trust that the leopard wouldn’t attack him but it was his duty to ensure that the leopard was not killed by the train.

Ranji learns a lot from Kishan who appears to be a gentle teacher to him. Ranji notices that nature like society has its rules but unfortunately, man does not like to adhere to the rules of nature. Preferring instead to put himself at the top of the food chain with total disregard for other animals. This is unlike Kishan who not only respects his environment but also knows his place in it. However, he is not a foolish man and knows that he cannot trust all animals and as such he has an axe to protect himself.

Another important lesson that Ranji learns is the fact that the life he lives in town may be more dangerous than living a life in the jungle. The story of Kishan and how he was robbed by a pick-pocket in the town allows Ranji to wonder if the modern life in the town is better than the calm life in the jungle. As time passes by, Ranji notices that the sun is setting down. He enjoys the nightlife of the forest call of a barking deer, the cry of a fox, the quaint tonk-tonk of a nightjar, the rhythmic sawing sound of a leopard cutting through the trees. Anyhow, Ranji returns safely to his home in the town.

A week later when Ranji is traveling to Delhi with his father on the night train, he tries to make out the old man and his lantern and his hut, and soon he sees the lantern hanging outside the hut which means he has done his duty of checking the tunnel and retired for the night. Ranji feels gratitude for the watchman who strictly follows his duty for the sake of others and trains in which thousands of passengers exist.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson | Themes, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘Nature’ is a long spiritual essay, a book written by Ralph Waldo Emerson that was published in 1836. In this essay, Emerson talks about the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature and suggests that humans often fail to realize and appreciate the true beauty of nature. He says that while nature offers everything required for humans, they fail to reciprocate. However, he says that the only way to achieve true happiness and calmness is to experience the wholeness of nature. To attain oneness or wholeness with nature, one must shed of the flaws and distractions imposed on us by society. While people generally think that nature is the mere reflection of human will/manipulation, a means for human ends, Emerson suggests that humans are nothing but a part of nature and to attain their full potential, they should strive to be one with nature.

Later on, Emerson continued to explore these spiritual ideas and that became the backbone of Transcendentalism. This spiritual movement influenced many other thinkers and writers including Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Bronson Alcott.

In 1833, Emerson toured Europe where he came in close contact with William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Thomas Carlyle. He was influenced by the literary, artistic, and philosophical movement of Romanticism in Europe. His ideas expressed in Nature can be compared with those of William Wordsworth’s ideas in his poems ‘Expostulation and Reply’ and ‘The Tables Turned.’

Summary of Nature by Emerson:

In the Preface's first edition published in 1836, Emerson used a passage from the Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus which suggests the primacy of spirit and human understanding over nature. In the second edition published in 1840, he changed the Introduction and used one of his own poems instead which emphasizes the unity of all manifestations of nature, nature's symbolism, and the perpetual development of all of nature's forms toward the highest expression as embodied in man.

Emerson divided his transcendentalist essay into an introduction and eight following parts while outlining his initial ideas about the fundamental relationship of humanity with nature. These eight parts are Nature, Commodity, Beauty, Language, Discipline, Idealism, Spirit and Prospects.

Introduction:

In the introduction, he expresses his ideas while stressing that the current generation must avoid using the traditional knowledge and information given by the past, rather we should explore and find the hidden treasures of nature on our own. He says that God or nature are the two sides of the same coin that we should explore through our own personal, direct relationship to and revelations about the world. He advocates for spending time alone in nature.

Chapter 1 Nature:

He asserts that all our queries about the Universe can be answered by our experience of life and by the world around us. Emerson identifies nature and spirit as the components of the universe. He defines nature (the "NOT ME") as everything separate from the inner individual — nature, art, other men, and our own bodies. In common usage, nature refers to the material world unchanged by man. Art is nature in combination with the will of man. Emerson says that he will use both the meanings of Nature in his essay. Emerson supports the Stoic idea that nature could be found as the source of moral principles and well-being. However, in the present age, he argues, "few adult persons can see nature. Most people do not see the sun. At least they have a very superficial seeing." Seeing/understanding nature entails not only asking what nature is or how it operates, but also "To what end is nature?" Emerson says that while alone in nature when he becomes detached from everything, “I become a transparent eyeball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or parcel of God.”

Chapter 2 Commodity:

In this chapter, Emerson treats the most basic uses of nature as commodities for heat, food, water, shelter, and transportation. He discusses the practical usefulness of nature as a source of raw material and energy and says that all parts of nature - as material, process, and result - work toward the benefit of humanity. However, Emerson argues the use of nature as a commodity is the lowest of benefits, and moves on to less material gifts and aspects of nature.

Chapter 3 Beauty:

In the third chapter, Emerson asserts that nature provides humanity with its ideas and standards of beauty. “The standard beauty is the entire circuit of natural forms – the totality of nature.” He says that nature not only works as a base commodity but it also satisfies another human requirement, the desire for beauty. He defines beauty as the idea that something can produce delight in the viewer in and of itself, and not for the usefulness it can provide. He says that nature’s beauty invigorates the soul and hence, "no reason can be asked or given why the soul seeks beauty." He classifies beauty as physical beauty, moral beauty (or virtue), and intellectual beauty (or truth). Every object in nature has its own beauty, which is magnified when perspective allows a comprehensive vision of the whole. Emerson says that beauty stimulates the intellect and generates creativity. He defines ‘art’ as the creation of beauty and says that all art is either the product of nature or the expression of it.

Chapter 4 Language:

In this chapter, Emerson says that just like beauty, language too, is grounded in nature. He says that for a man, nature is a vehicle for thought. He supports his assertion in three steps. Firstly, he says that all words represent particular facts in nature, which exist in part to give us language to express ourselves. Even the words conveying intellectual or moral meaning can be etymologically traced back to roots originally attached to material objects or their qualities. He offers some examples of this as "supercilious" is from the Latin super cilia, which means raising the eyebrow. He says that not only words are symbolic but the natural objects that they represent are symbolic of particular spiritual states. Human intellectual processes are, of necessity, expressed through language, which in its primal form was integrally connected to nature. Every appearance in nature corresponds to some state of the mind, and that state of the mind can only be described by presenting that natural appearance as its picture. An enraged man is a lion, a cunning man is a fox, a firm man is a rock, and a learned man is a torch. A lamb is an innocence; a snake is a subtle spite; flowers express to us delicate affections. Light and darkness are our familiar expression for knowledge and ignorance; and heat for love. Emerson argues that people who have been corrupted by their various desires use corrupted language. But a person with good character, who’s grown up close to nature, has a skillful grasp of language and is more creative.

Chapter 5 Discipline:

In this chapter, Emerson suggests that our experiences of Nature are a discipline, a multifaceted education for understanding intellectual truths (Understanding) and moral truths (Reason). All of nature serves to educate man through both the rational, logical "Understanding" and the intuitive, mystical "Reason." Through the more rational understanding, we constantly learn lessons about the similarities and differences between objects, about reality and unreality, about order, arrangement, progression, and combination. The ultimate result of such lessons is common sense. Emerson says that nature is bound to human will and is meant to serve men. We take what is useful from it in forming a sense of the universe, giving greater or lesser weight to particular aspects to suit our purposes, even framing nature according to our own image of it. Our intuitive reason provides spiritual and ethical ideas behind nature. Emerson says that all things are moral as nature is divine itself therefore every aspect of nature conveys "the laws of right and wrong." While studying nature, we make laws, ethics, and religions and abide by them.

Chapter 6 Idealism:

In this chapter, Emerson again explores what nature is and wonders if it is real, whether nature actually exists, or if God may have created it only as a perception in the human mind. However, he says that such a doubt does not diminish the usefulness of nature as an aid to human comprehension of the universe. He stresses that it is unknowable if nature really exists or if it is just a human construct and says that irrespective of it, nature is Ideal. Even if nature is not real, the natural laws are verifiable and applicable. However, he says that such questions hint that nature is not real, and harm the faith of the common man in the permanence of natural laws. Any distrust of the permanence of laws [e.g., gravity] would paralyze the faculties of man. It doesn’t really matter whether there is an external reality or whether everything we perceive to be real is just an illusion. Idealism imposes the superiority of spirit over nature. He mentions Kantian philosophy which suggests that matter is a phenomenon.

Chapter 7 Spirit:

In this chapter, Emerson asserts that a true theory of nature and man must allow progressive, dynamic comprehension. Emerson says that while extreme idealism denies the existence of matter or external reality, it is of no use if there is no distinction between the soul and the world/nature. When we recognize this distinction, we approve of individual liberty and the existence of each and it makes it easy to understand their relation to one another - that is, how spirit (the Supreme Being, the Universal Soul) acts through us, "as the life of the tree puts forth new branches and leaves through the pores of the old," and thus is not subject to the human will, as with the rest of the world/nature.

Chapter 8 Prospects:

In the last chapter, Emerson suggests that it is better to observe the world as a naturalist rather than a student of empirical science. He says that Empirical science hinders true perception by focusing too much on particulars and too little on the broader picture. "Untaught sallies of the spirit" advances the learned naturalist further than does precise analysis of detail. Different branches of science (e.g., geology) use observations, measurements, and calculations to study nature, and they also isolate different elements of nature (like rocks and minerals) to study instead of considering those parts within the larger whole of nature. Emerson advocates for a more holistic, intuitive approach to studying nature. But he suggests that there is value in the kind of observation that scientists use (he calls this observation “Understanding”), because people need to understand, or observe, the world before they can use their intuition to interpret those observations (he calls intuition “Reason”).

At the end of his book, Emerson says that in the past, we used to live in complete harmony with nature as a unit. But over time, we stopped paying attention to the spiritual truths that nature teaches and grew distant from nature. To remedy this, people must spend time in nature and use their intuition to understand it—this will unify humankind with nature again.

So this is t for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Over-Soul by Ralph Waldo Emerson | Themes, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Over-Soul is an essay by Ralph Waldo Emerson that was first published in 1841. It is a long essay composed of 30 paragraphs. In the essay, Emerson discusses how every human soul is an embodiment of an all-powerful supreme soul that he names as Over-Soul. In the first 10 paragraphs (1-10), Emerson offers an idea about the Over-Soul that embodies all the human souls and unites them, offering them a sense of relationship. Emerson states that though each individual, every human soul is capable of experiencing the presence of this all-embodying Over-Soul, we often confuse ourselves. However, Emerson states that our souls can grow to more intimately connect with and experience the Over-Soul. Such growth occurs not by gradation, but by evolution or ascension into a new state of virtue.

In the next 5 paragraphs (11-15), he discusses the relationship between the Over-Soul and the society as a whole. Emerson says that despite all dissimilarities among people, we all share a common nature that unites us. This similarity, or the common nature among all the human souls is not just a social connection but it is the intimate relation of each human soul with the Over Soul.

In Paragraphs 16-21, Emerson says that the Over-Soul manifests itself from time to time, however, Emerson says that the Over-Soul does not reveal itself as some unnatural miracle or foreseeing, rather, he enables our human souls to realize and mingle with the supreme being, the Over-Soul. But once a human soul realizes his direct connection with that Divine force, he understands his innate relationship with all the other human souls because the Over-Soul embodies all and that emboldens the relationship of all human souls.

In paragraphs 22-30, Emerson stresses again that the ascension of an individual, or a human soul is not possible through voluntary teachings and gradation, rather such an ascension is dependent on individual efforts and belief in the innate goodness of the nature of human souls that are nothing but a part of the Over-Soul. Emerson says that it is entirely possible for any individual being to feel and experience the direct connection with the Over Soul but it cannot be achieved through established religious dogmas. He says that an individual seeking the truth exhibits the ‘tone of seeking,’ but one who blindly follows the dogmas of religion suggests that he already has that which is yet to be sought and exhibits the ‘tone of having.’ Emerson says that it is entirely possible for any human soul to ascend to the Over Soul with the knowledge of the entire plain truth but such a person will not exhibit any pride in that because such an enlightened soul has no rose color, no fine friends, no chivalry, no adventures; does not want admiration; dwells in the hour that now is. Emerson criticizes the established religious systems that act as an authority over their followers rather than a liberating experience. He says that religions create blind followers who lack faith but to connect with the Over-Soul, one must have faith in oneself, and thus in the soul.

The influence of Vedantic philosophies is visible in this essay though Emerson was also inspired by works of Plato, Plutarch, Plotinus, and Proclus. His affinity towards the literary works of Emanuel Swedenborg is also visible.

Summary of The Over-Soul

Emerson begins with a poetic epigraph "Psychozoia, or, the Life of Soul" by Henry More which was written in 1647. The epigraph suggests that moral ideas are innate in us. When we are born, we possess already the moral character that shapes our actions for the rest of our lives. The epigraph suggests the intimate relationship of all souls to the Supreme Being (God), or the Over-Soul.

He continues with another poetic epigraph that was written by himself and was a part of his own poem titled ‘Unity.’ In this epigraph, Emerson discusses the duality that may appear to be opposing, yet signifies oneness. He mentions naturally contrasting figures like "east and west," "sod and stone," and "Night and Day" in his poem. Although the paired objects are opposites, both are needed if a condition of wholeness is to exist. The epigraph further says that power resides that enables these and every other contrasting figure to unite and act towards oneness. He later mentions that power as the Over-Soul.

In paragraphs 1-3, Emerson introduces that power and exhibits his intent to define the Over-Soul that Henry More mentioned as God in his poem. He stresses that this supreme being can be understood only through moral actions and no language can describe it. Thus, he indirectly suggests that no religion or scripture can actually provide any true knowledge of God or the Over-Soul, one has to seek, find, and define the Over-Soul by their own efforts. Emerson says, "My words do not carry its august sense; they fall short and cold." While one cannot understand the presence of a universal spirit through words, one can demonstrate the presence of a Supreme being in their own soul by means of their actions and characters. Yet, Emerson states that he will try his best to define the Over-Soul through this essay. In Paragraphs 4-10, Emerson defines the Over-Soul but since the Over-Soul cannot be known through language, Emerson suggests what it is not and says, "All goes to show that the soul in man is not an organ . . . is not a function . . . is not a faculty . . . is not the intellect or the will . . ." He says that the soul is not an organ but it animates all the organs, The soul is not the intellect, or will, but it masters the intellect and the will. He says that the soul is eternal and is not bound by time or place, the soul has no physical bounds. An idea can transcend time because the soul advances by an "ascension of state"; we gain a deeper understanding of truth not by anything physical, but through our minds. The greater insight we gain into the spirit that connects everything in our world, the closer we come to the Over-Soul. Emerson stresses that one can unite with the Over-Soul by following “the law of moral and mental gain.” Emerson continues the theme of duality in these paragraphs as the soul is free of any physical bounds yet, it rules over the physical sense of life. He says that when a human soul attains the revelations of Over-Soul, he gets rid of the bounds of time, space, and nature (attains Moksha?).

In paragraphs 11-15, Emerson explains the relationship between the Over-Soul and society while stressing the importance of individual liberty. He says that since the Over-Soul embodies every human soul, the Over-Soul unites people and manifests itself in society. Emerson says that this unification manifests itself in the idea of a common nature. When we refer to our common nature in conversations with one another, we do not refer to a social connection, but rather an impersonal one -- in other words, a connection to God. He then implores that an individual must concentrate on his personal experience with the Over-Soul and must not worry about what society thinks. Although God exists in every one of us, society's pressures cause us to behave differently and unnaturally than God would have us act; this disparity creates a rift between our souls and the Over-Soul. One must think independently and act entirely.

In Paragraphs 16-21, Emerson explores the ways through which one may explore the existence of the Over-Soul. He has already established that the Over-Soul embodies all, or God is within all of us, but how can one recognize the existence of the Over-Soul? He says that one can recognize the Universal Spirit through Revelation which is not a miracle but "an influx of the Divine mind into our mind." He mentions various sects of religion including Moravianism, Calvinism, and Methodism, and says all these religions mention the fact of Over-Soul’s revelation in which "the individual soul always mingles with the universal soul" and the individual attains ecstatic understanding of the whole. He criticizes the idea of heaven or the afterlife and denounces the desire of people to know about the future of their spiritual being and says that "these questions which we lust to ask about the future, are a confession of sin. God has no answer to them. No answer in words can reply to a question of things." Emerson again stresses moral living and says that we should "work and live, work and live," for responsible actions are what will secure our immortality. Each person, alone, is responsible for the actions that will or will not ensure his or her salvation.

In Paragraphs 22-30, Emerson stresses the individual character and says that a human soul who is spiritually close to the Over-Soul has a virtuous character and performs noble acts because the Over-Soul influences these actions. He again stresses that one cannot explore the Divinity within themselves from the study of outer religious texts. He says that a scholar or a poet who bases opinions on his own experience speaks "from within," but the scholar or poet who imitates rather than creates speaks "from without."

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Appointment at Samarra by John O'Hara | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. John O’Hara was an American novelist and short stories writer who was born in 1905 and died in 1970. His first novel was titled Appointment at Samarra which was published in the year 1934. The novel concerns the self-destruction of the fictional character Julian English, a wealthy car dealer once a member of the social elite of Gibbsville, Pennsylvania. His other major work was the novel BUtterfield 8 which was published in 1935.

The story of Appointment at Samarra is narrated by an unnamed omniscient narrator who tells the story intermittently from the points of view of several key characters. These characters include Luther Fliegler, Irma Fliegler, Julian English, Al Grecco, Dr. English, Caroline English, Mrs. Walker, Mr. Harley, Alice Cartwright, Harry Reilly, Mary Manners, and Ross Campbell. The story is set in the fictional town of Gibbsville, Pennsylvania, in 1930. The town comes under the anthracite coal mining region and is a stronghold of union labor politics. Race, religion, and wealth play a dominant role in the position of a person in the social hierarchy of the town. The major themes of the novel are the failure of love and marriage, loneliness, and the struggle between fate and free will.

The title of the novel refers to a retelling of an old Mesopotamian tale by British author W. Somerset Maugham, in which a man is faced with the inevitability of his upcoming death. Somerset’s short story was published in 1933.

Characters of Appointment at Samarra:

Julian English is the main character of the novel, also known as Ju. He is a college-educated 30-year-old married man who owns an established Cadillac dealership in Gibbsville. He used to be a reputed member of the community Lantenego Street Club; however, he is an alcoholic. Caroline English is Ju’s wife. She is a beautiful woman who is forced to live with Julian who continues to disrespect her and himself. She wishes to leave Ju and lead a better life but her mother insists that she must maintain her marriage vows. William English is Ju’s father. Harry Reilley is an Irish Catholic socialite and a major investor in Ju’s business who has bailed him out many times in difficult situations. Harry is interested in Caroline and Ju fears that Caroline will leave him for Harry and this creates a sense of animosity in him against Harry. Ed Charney is the local mob boss of Gibbsville. He is a dangerous strong man who buys cars from Julian's business and recommends Julian's dealership to other car buyers. Helen is the mistress of Ed Charney. Helen is an overly flirtatious beautiful woman. Ed Charney is insecure about her and appoints Al Greco to watch Helene at the Stagecoach to ensure she does not leave with another man. Greco is an affiliate lower-level mob of Ed Charney. Froggy Ogden is a wounded war veteran who is a cousin of Caroline. Ju believes that Froggy is his friend however, Froggy admits to Caroline that he never liked Julian and wishes Caroline had never married him. Lute Flieger is an employee of Julian and Irma is Lute’s wife.

Summary of Appointment at Samarra:

The story begins on Christmas Eve when Lute Flieger and Irma discuss the married life of Julian and Caroline. Irma says that she is not envious of Caroline but she is worried about her constant fights with Julian. Later on, they all meet at Lantenego Street Ckub where all those who live on Lantenego Street are having a party. At the party, Harry Reilley is stealing the limelight with his jokes, stories, and charms. Ju feels that Caroline is attracted to Harry and he gets drunk. He is resentful of Harry and wishes to throw a drink at his face to humiliate him. However, Harry is a major investor in his business and his business is not doing too well. Harry believes that he is a reputed member of the club but most of the other members are irritated by his rash behavior under the effect of alcohol. Julian throws a drink at Harry’s face. A big piece of ice from the drink hits Harry in the eye.

Julian and Caroline then return from the party and they quarrel about the incident. Ju accuses Caroline of infidelity with Harry. Caroline says that Julian always drinks too much and chases women as well. She reminds him that Harry has a mortgage on the car agency and a good deal of influence with the Catholics, and he is a man who can hold a grudge. The next morning, Ju wakes up with a hangover and feels guilty about his behavior. Caroline informs him that everyone in Lantenego Street is talking about the incident of the last night. Ju asks Caroline if she has any relationship with Harry which Caroline furiously denies. Ju thinks of visiting Harry and apologizing for his behavior.

Ed Charney, the boss of the local mob of bootleggers calls Al Greco to meet him at Apollo restaurant. Al Greco reaches there at the right time and starts having his lunch. Ed Charney fails to visit the restaurant because his son broke his arm and thus Ed Charney decided to remain at home with his wife and son. He sends a message to Al Greco to keep an eye on Ed’s mistress Helen Holman who is scheduled to spend her evening at the Stage Coach, a local club for the second-tier society of Gibbsville. Helen is an excessively flirtatious woman and Ed wants to make sure that she doesn’t offer herself to other men.

Jullian and Caroline go to meet Ju’s parents. William English, Ju’s father believes that Ju is more like his grandfather who committed suicide after getting caught in a bank fraud. William feels that Jullian too has similar immoral tendencies. As they leave, Caroline convinces Ju to meet Harry and apologize for his behavior. They visit Harry’s house but Harry refuses to meet Ju. Caroline is concerned about what this means for their social standing.

Before attending the party at night, Caroline insists that Jullian must promise that he will not drink alcohol. At the party, Ju notices that everyone is trying to avoid him while they whisper about the incident of the last party. He learns that most of them believe that he is religiously intolerant of Harry who is an Irish Catholic. Ju used to believe that he still is a reputable member of the Lantenego Street Club but realizes that nobody respects him. In his frustration, he forgets his promise and starts drinking again. Caroline tries to stop him but he demands that she should go out with him in the car. Caroline refuses to leave the party and he continues to drink more.

All the people then visit the Stage Coach for the festivities where they meet Al Greco, Helen, Lute, and Ed. Jullian continues to seduce Caroline and insists that she should leave with him but she continues to refuse him. Jullian then sits with Al Greco and Helen whom he knows because he buys his alcohol from Ed. Helen and Al Greco are friendly towards him. He notices that Helen is very beautiful and she is wearing a raunchy revealing dress. He gets obsessed with her and takes her to the dance floor. Everyone notices how flirtatiously Ju dances with Helen and then he takes her to his car where they have sex. After some time, Helen returns in a disheveled situation while Al Greco and others take out Jullian from the vehicle who is heavily inebriated. Al Greco is unhappy because he was assumed to take guard of Helen while Caroline feels humiliated in front of all the party people.

The next morning, Jullian goes out to work much earlier to avoid Caroline. At the office, Lute informs him that the business is falling again. Jullian is distraught as he knows that neither Ed Charney nor Harry will help him now. He contemplates committing suicide when Caroline calls him. He is surprised to notice that Caroline is not complaining about what he did the last night.

Jullian then goes to meet Froggy Ogden, his childhood friend to seek his help. Froggy refuses to help him and says that he never liked him. He chastises him for his behavior against Caroline who is Froggy’s cousin. Froggy dares Jullian for a duel but Jullian doesn’t wish to fight because Froggy has already lost an arm during World War I. Yet, Froggy continues to challenge him and they engage in a fistfight. When other people intervene, Jullian runs away from the place.

He goes to Caroline’s mother’s home and overhears that Caroline is complaining about him to his mother. She says that she wishes to divorce him because of his erratic behavior but her mother insists that she should continue the marriage. Jullian decides to go back but Caroline rushes out at the same time. Jullian informs her about the fight with Froggy. Caroline is aghast. She threatens him that she will leave him if he doesn’t stop drinking and cancels the party they had to visit that night.

Jullian returns home and starts drinking again. Meanwhile, a woman visits his house to ask about the list of guests for the party at night. He tries to seduce that woman who ignores him and goes out.

He drinks more and then goes to the garage and locks himself in the car and turns on the engine. He imagines a girl Mary whom he loved during his younger days but couldn’t marry because she was poor. Soon he suffers suffocation. He smashes the clock on the dashboard: it’s 10:41 p.m. and then he dies.

An hour later, his neighbor notices him dead and calls his father William English. The coroner declares that Julian committed suicide via carbon monoxide poisoning. Caroline is initially distraught at her husband’s death but soon accepts that it is time for him to die. Lute Flieger takes up the car dealership in Julian’s place.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!