The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Fall of the House of Usher was a gothic short story written by Edgar Allan Poe that was first published in 1839 in Burton’s Gentleman’s Magazine. In 1840, it was republished in the short story collection by Edgar Allan Poe titled Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque.

The short story is a Gothic Dark Romantic short story with elements of isolation, madness, family, supernatural forces, death, and decadence.

Characters of The Fall of the House of Usher:

The story is told by an unnamed narrator. He receives a letter of urgency from his childhood friend. The narrator decides to be with his friend in the time of his need. When he reaches there, he describes the ghastly old house of his friend in great detail. He finds that his friend is suffering from nervousness and he is mentally sick. Roderick Usher is the friend of the narrator. He is the last living descendant, along with his sister, of the age-old family of Usher. The Usher family is famous for its strange temperaments, and for creating in these moods wonderful works of art, deeds of charity, and contributions to “musical science." The Ushers have never crossed their family line. Only one member of the Usher family has survived from generation to generation, thereby forming a direct line of descent without any outside branches. Thus Roderick and his sister are the direct descendent of Ancient Ushers. However, the Usher family is stricken with a peculiar temperament and mental illness that seems to run through their blood. Because of his illness, Roderick is allergic to sunlight. Roderick Usher spends his days inside his dark and cavernous mansion, avoiding sunlight or the smells of flowers. Madeleine Usher is Roderick’s sister who is suffering a mysterious illness that is cataleptic in nature. Roderick loves his sister too much and he is completely devoted to her well-being. The two are living with each other without spouses in their great family mansion. Madeline’s health is continuously deteriorating and her insanity is increasing but Roderick seems unable to bear the thought of her death.

Summary of The Fall of the House of Usher:

The story begins as the narrator describes that he is traveling on a horse in a dull part of the countryside on a grim day. He reaches an old mansion, a huge old house that appears frightening and ghostly. The narrator feels an insufferable feeling of dread but he continues to the house. The walls and windows of the house are bleak. The mansion is very old and has been used by the Usher family for the time unknown. Some parts of the mansion are fine but some others appear crumbling. Overall, the structure of the mansion appears robust and able to withstand many more decades. However, there is a single crack on the mansion going from top to bottom of the façade.

The narrator is unable to understand why he is feeling such unease. He thinks that perhaps if the parts of the scene were to be rearranged, their effect would be different, so he rides over to the “tarn” with some water nearby the house and looks at the inverted image of the house in the water, but this image is even more hideous.

He received an urgent letter from his childhood friend Roderick Usher who lives in this mansion. Roderick is suffering some illness and he sought the narrator’s company urgently. Though the two have been close friends since childhood, the narrator remembers that Roderick has a strangely reserved temperament. But the Usher family is known for their strange temperaments and they are known to be great patrons of arts and music and continue to help people through charity. The narrator tries to shake away the feeling of terror that he felt while observing the house. As he enters the house, he is greeted by a servant who takes him to the Usher’s studio.

On the way to Usher’s studio, the narrator sees various striking old images and objects on the tapestries and carvings on the walls. These images again fill him with a strange sense of gloom and terror. Finally, he reaches Usher’s studio whose windows are so high that they could not be reached. The windows are partially covered and hardly any light comes from the outside. The room is huge and dark and the narrator finds it difficult to see things but notices that the room is filled with tattered furniture and books and musical instruments.

Roderick Usher rises and warmly greets his friend. But the narrator realizes that Roderick has changed a lot. He is much paler and less energetic than he was in the past. Roderick informs that he is suffering from nervousness and fear. He has grown allergic to sunlight and cannot face it. Roderick informs that perhaps his health condition is genetic and his senses are heightened, he has become too sensitive and prone to allergies. The narrator himself has an ill feeling towards this old mansion and he notices that Roderick too is afraid of his old house.

Roderick informs that his sister Madeleine is suffering from a mysterious disease. The doctors are unable to diagnose her illness properly. Perhaps she is suffering from, catalepsy, the loss of control of one’s limbs that causes seizures and deathlike trances. Doctors have no cure for her. However, Roderick loves his sister too much. They have been living together in this age-old house for so long. Roderick says that though Madeline is very weak, she is still able to walk around a little. Right at that moment, the lady Madeleine passes through the room. The narrator sees her and her sight fills him with fear. Madeline goes to her room and the narrator sees that Roderick is weeping while worrying for her. The narrator assures Roderick that things will become better. However, Madeline suffers a seizure on the same day and is now bedridden, unable to move.

The narrator starts living in the mansion in a room alongside Usher’s studio.

The narrator continues his best to cheer him up. He listens to Roderick play the guitar and make up words for his songs, and he reads him stories, However, he fails to raise Roderick’s spirit and continues to suffer gloom. The narrator observes the paintings made by Roderick and praises him but he finds them very abstract and dreadful.

One day, Roderick sings the poem “The Haunted Palace” and then tells the narrator that he believes the house he lives in to be alive and that this sentience arises from the arrangement of the masonry and vegetation surrounding it. Further, Roderick believes that his fate is connected to the family mansion. Roderick says that the mansion itself is unhealthy and thus, he too is unhealthy.

Roderick informs the narrator that Madeline again suffered a seizure and died during the trance. Roderick decides to bury her temporarily in the tombs below the house. He doesn’t want to take her to the morgue because he fears that the doctors might dig up her body for scientific examination since her disease was so strange to them. The narrator helps Roderick in placing the body of Madeline in the tomb. He notices that Madeline had rosy cheeks and she appeared beautiful even in death. He suddenly realizes that Madeline and Roderick were twins. After that, Roderick becomes more uneasy and difficult to control. One night, a heavy storm engulfs the mansion. Roderick knocks on the doors of the room of the narrator as he is frightened and cannot sleep. Roderick takes him to a window from where they see a bright-looking gas surrounding the house. Roderick is frightened by that gas but the narrator says that it is a natural phenomenon and there is nothing uncommon.

The narrator tries to soothe Roderick down and starts reading a story to him. He reads “The Mad Trist” by Sir Launcelot Canning, a medieval romance novel. The story is about a knight named Ethelred who breaks into a hermit's dwelling in an attempt to escape an approaching storm, only to find a palace of gold guarded by a dragon. Ethelred slays the dragon with his mighty sword and the dragon falls down with a piercing shriek. As the narrator reads the forceful entry of Ethelred into the hermit’s place, he and Roderick hear a crackling sound coming from below the mansion. At first, the narrator ignores it but the strange sound continues to grow. As he reads the piercing shriek of the falling dragon, he hears a strong loud sound that he cannot ignore. He observes that Roderick is too afraid and has slumped over in his chair. Roderick says that he is hearing these sounds for a few days and he thinks that they might have buried Madeline alive. Maybe she didn’t die but was just suffering another death-like trance. He says that maybe Madeline is trying to escape. He then shouts that Madeline is standing right behind the door. Right at that moment, a strong wind forces the door open and the narrator sees that Roderick’s doubts were right. He sees Madeline standing at the door in white robes bloodied from her struggles. She awkwardly moves towards Roderick and attacks him. Roderick dies of fear. Madeline then tries to attack the narrator who runs away from the house, saving his life. As he comes out of the mansion, he sees that the whole mansion crumbles to the ground on the single crack on the facade of the mansion from top to bottom that he observed when he reached here.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

A&P by John Updike | Themes, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. A&P is a tragicomic short story written by John Updike that was first published in The New Yorker on July 22, 1961. The story was later republished in the short story collection titled Pigeon Feathers in the same year that was published by Alfred A. Knopf Inc. In 1966, a short film was made on the short story that starred Sean Hayes and Amy Smart in lead roles.

The Title: A&P stands for The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company. It was an American chain of grocery stores that operated from 1859 to 2015. From 1915 through 1975, A&P was the largest grocery retailer in the United States.

Characters of A&P: Sammy is the narrator of the story. He is a nineteen years old boy working in the checkout line of an A&P store in a small New England town. He is an overconfident youth who believes that he can judge people based on how they dress and act and on what they buy. Queenie is a teenage girl who enters the A&P in her bathing suit. She is very attractive and though nobody knows her name, Sammy nicknames her as Queenie. Lengel is the strict by-the-books manager of A&P and he is a Sunday School teacher. He confronts the Queenie and other girls about their skimpy attire and embarrasses them. Stokesie is another checkout clerk at A&P. He is just a few years older than Sammy but he is already married and has two children. The girl in the Plaid Bikini is the second of the three girls who enter A&P in a bathing suit. She is beautiful but Sammy feels that her attractiveness is overshadowed by Queenie. The Big Tall Goony Goony is the third girl in a bathing suit who enters the A&P store. She is very tall and fat and appears to contrast with the beautiful demeanor of Queenie. McMohan is another guy working at the store.

Summary of A&P:

The story begins as the narrator is working in the checkout line of the local A&P store in a town in New England. He is Sammy, a 19-year-old boy. He is attending to a 50 years old woman while ringing the groceries for payment. He describes the woman as “a witch about fifty with rouge on her cheekbones and no eyebrows." It appears he is not very enthusiastic about his job and is getting bored. Suddenly, three young teenage girls in bathing suits enter the A&P store and Sammy gets distracted by their sight. First, he notices a ‘chunky’ girl who is wearing a green plaid Bikini. Sammy continues paying attention to her and analyzes her tan. As he is distracted, he accidentally rings up a pack of crackers twice. The aged woman notices his mistake and complains about it. Sammy pays attention to the groceries of the woman and once she leaves the A&P store, he concentrates on the three girls again.

He sees that the three girls are walking down an aisle. He observes that the bikini suit of the ‘chunky’ girl is new. Sammy doesn’t find her strikingly attractive. Then he observes the other girl who is tall and fat. He instantly dislikes her and nicknames her as the big tall goony goony. Finally, he notices the leader of these girls who is a self-possessed girl of medium height. Sammy notices a strange leading quality in her as she walks like a queen. Sammy nicknames her Queenie. Queenie walks deliberately and confidently looks straight forward while the other two girls follow her quietly. Sammy wonders why these girls entered A&P in their bathing suits.

Sammy notices that just like him, Stokesie is also admiring the girls and he too has eyes on Queenie. Sammy feels that Queenie already knows that he and Stokesie are ogling at her but she completely ignores them. Stokesie is another clerk at A&P. He is hardworking and responsible and he aspires to be the manager of A&P in the future. He is just a couple of ars elder than Sammy but he is already married and has two kids.

The three girls discuss something and the big tall goony goony girl picks up a pack of cookies. Sammy then pays attention to the other customers at A&P who are startled by these girls in ‘indecent clothes’ but soon turn their heads to their own carts. Sammy feels that soon someone will complain about these girls in indecent dresses as he sees some women glancing back at the three girls disapprovingly. Girls in bikinis can be a common sight on the beach but seeing them at A&P is disturbing to them. Sammy describes these women as "house slaves in pin-curlers."

Sammy informs that the town is situated very near a beach. Often women visiting the beach would come to A&P but they usually put on their shirts and shorts before entering the store. Furthermore, most of those women are old with several kids and hence, they create no scene at the store. However, these girls are unique. They are teenagers and they are flaunting their youth and attractiveness in their bathing suits.

The three girls go to the meat counter and ask for something. McMohan was managing the meat counter. He points the girls in a direction and as they move in that direction, he starts ogling them in a lewd manner. Sammy feels bad for the girls. As Sammy is working at the checking line, he expects to see the girls again. The three girls appear and they have to choose between Sammy’s or Stokesie’s register. However, an old man reaches Stokesie’s checking line first and Queenie decides to hand over her purchase to Sammy. Sammy notes that she bought a jar of fancy Herring snacks. Sammy tells her that the cost is 49 cents. Queenie pulls out a folded dollar bill from the cleavage in her top and Sammy feels elated by taking it in his hands.

At the same time, Lengel, the store manager enters the store. He is a strict manager who works by the book of rules. He is also a Sunday school teacher and prioritizes discipline over frivolousness. He observes that the girls in their indecent dresses are making a scene. He comes near and reprimands them. He humiliates them and says that “This isn’t the beach.” All the girls are ashamed and silent. Queenie tries to reason out and blushingly says that her mother told her to buy Herring snacks. Sammy gets startled by her voice. He starts thinking about her family and social class and thinks that she must belong to the rich high class and that her parents must have planned a fancy party where they would offer cocktails and herring snacks.

Lengel ignores Queenie’s excuse and continues to embarrass her. He repeats that ‘this is not the beach’ and they must dress decently before entering a public place like his store. Sammy finds it funny and he smiles at Lengel. Lengel doesn’t like Sammy smiling but ignores him and continues to shout at the girls. He sternly says that the next time they should be decently dressed before entering the store. Queenie strikes back and says that they are decent girls. Lengel says that he doesn’t want to argue but if they have to come into the store again, they must have their shoulders properly covered as it is the store’s policy. He then asks Sammy if he has already ringed the purchase of the girls to which Sammy answers that he hasn’t yet. He then rings the box of herring snacks and the girls rush out of the store after picking it up.

As the girls are going out, Sammy declares that he is quitting the job in a voice strong enough to make the girls listen to him. The girls ignore him and continue out of the store. Sammy then confronts Lengel and says that he didn’t have to embarrass the girls the way he did. Lengel says that the girls were embarrassing the store and were making other customers feel uncomfortable to which Sammy responds in a senseless manner saying "Fiddle-de-do." He then removes his store uniform and throws the bowtie and apron on the counter. Lengel tries to stop Sammy and says that he should rethink as he doesn’t want to do this to his poor parents and his rash decision will continue to harm him in the longer run. Sammy doesn’t listen and goes out of the store with his white shirt on. As he reaches out, he looks for the three girls but they have already vanished and he doesn’t know which way they go. Sammy looks back at the store and sees that Lengel himself is attending the checking line where he was working just a few minutes before. Sammy realizes that he has taken a hard decision and wonders how hard his future would be.

Themes of A&P: The story's major theme is the importance of appearance, and servitude to conformity. The girls appear strange and bizarre in store and Ligel reprimands them for not conforming to the social definition of decency. However, the girls prefer individual liberty and claim that despite their clothes, they are decent. Sammy appears to favor the concept of individual liberty and doesn’t like servitude to conformity. Ligel is absolutely right in objecting to their dresses as girls in bathing suits in a grocery store may offend other customers but he didn’t have any right to embarrass them. Another theme is the nature of power. Being the manager, he executes his power by reprimanding them and then warning Sammy of the consequences if he quits the job. He thinks that he has the power to humiliate people for wearing clothes that he thinks are indecent. However, the real power is executed by Sammy who decides to revolt against too much conformity that is marring his community. He stands for individual liberty, though he will have to face consequences.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Portrait of a Lady by Khushwant Singh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was an Indian author, lawyer, diplomat, journalist, and politician who was awarded Padma Bhushan in 1974 and Padma Vibhushan in 2007. His first novel The Train to Pakistan was based on the Partition of India in 1947 and it proved to be his most renowned novel. In addition, he wrote many short stories. In 2013, a collection of his short stories was published which was titled “The Portrait of a Lady: Collected Stories.” This short story is autobiographical in which Khushwant Singh talked about his relationship with his grandmother during different phases of his life. He has beautifully drawn a pen- picture of her grandmother and describes the changes that came in their relationship after he went to the city and went abroad for higher studies. He pens down her daily activities and also describes her appearance creating an image in the reader’s mind. Ultimately, he describes her death.

Characters of The Portrait of a Lady:

The main character of the story is the grandmother of the narrator who happens to be the author of the story. She was a short, plump, and slightly bent, old lady with grey hair and a wrinkled face. She had a constant beautiful demeanor with a calm gentle and reassuring face. The narrator describes her as a “winter landscape in the mountains”. She was a religious lady who held her virtues. She spent most of her time in temples or reading scriptures and holy books. She had a beaded rosary and she never forgot to tell her prayers while counting the beads of the rosary. She had a deep connection with the narrator during his school days when he was in the village. But once the narrator and his family shifted to the city for his higher studies, he started spending lesser time with her. Gradually she became lonely. The narrator then went abroad for higher studies and his grandmother was left alone. She was very old and the narrator wasn’t sure if he will be able to see her again. But she kept living while spinning her charkha, feeding sparrows, and reciting her prayers. After five years, when the narrator returned, his grandmother welcomed him back by beating drums but soon she fell ill. It was her time to go.

Summary of The Portrait of a Lady:

The narrator informs that during his childhood, his parents were living in the city while he was staying at his parental village, living with his grandmother. His grandmother was a very strong and religious lady who never missed her prayer. She was very old with white hair that the narrator describes as silver locks. She was short, a little fatty, and slightly bent with a wrinkled face. The narrator had always seen her as an old woman and for him, it was difficult to imagine her in her younger days. The narrator’s grandfather is no more. He never saw him in person but he has seen his picture that hung above the mantelpiece in the drawing room. His grandfather used to wear loose clothes and in the picture, he too appears too old as if he is more than 100 years of age. He used to wear a big turban.

The narrator says that his grandmother had a bent back and she couldn’t walk straight but she always kept roaming around the house. While walking, she had to keep one hand on her waist while she always kept a beaded rosary in her other hand, continuously repeating her prayers.

The narrator says that her grandmother used to wear spotless white clothes and with her silver locks spread across her face, she used to appear like snowy mountains, true to her nature which was calm and content. The narrator had a good friendly relationship with his grandmother and when he was left with her in the village, she kept good care of her. She used to take him to the village school every day as it was very near to the village temple.

The grandmother routinely used to wake him up early in the morning and get him ready for school. Every day, she would take him to the school and while going to the school, they both sang prayers. The narrator loved her voice though he never learned the meaning of those prayers.

His grandmother was very careful about him and used to wash his slate and paint it with yellow chalk every day. She would then take an earthen pot with water and a reed pen. His grandmother used to give her stale chapatis with a little butter and sugar sprinkled over them for breakfast. While taking him to school, his grandmother would always keep some stale chapatis to feed the village dogs. The school was nearby the village temple and the priest was the teacher at the school. He would teach the alphabet and prayers to the children while the narrator’s grandmother used to spend her time in the temple, reading holy books.

As the narrator was growing old, his parents called them to the city so that he may pursue education at the municipality school in the city. As they shifted to the city, the relationship between the narrator and his grandmother became a bit distant because the municipality school was too far and she couldn’t go to the school with the narrator as he used to go with a motor bus. There were no dogs near their home so the grandmother started feeding sparrows and other birds.

The narrator was growing and he got busy with his education thus, they saw less of each other. Though she had immense interest in the narrator’s education, she could not help him in his lessons as he was learning English, the law of gravity, Archimedes’ principle, and many more such things which she could not understand. She often asked him what the teacher had taught him. She was displeased by knowing that they are not teaching religious scriptures at the school. The narrator once told that he was given music lessons she believed it to be indecent. To her, music had lewd associations and she considered music to be unsuitable for gentle folk.

After completing his school, the narrator went to the University for further studies. As he was growing older, he got a room of his own. This further alienated his grandmother. She didn’t complain but accepted her loneliness. She rarely spoke to anyone and spent most of her time in her room while spinning her charkha or reciting her prayers while counting the beads of her rosary. During the afternoon, she used to feed the sparrows. The sparrows had grown friendly to her and they would often perch on her shoulders and some even on her head but she never shooed them away. For her, it used to be the happiest hour of the day.

After completing his graduation, the narrator got a chance to go abroad for higher studies for five years. The narrator felt that this will upset his grandmother but to his surprise, she was not sentimental and she happily bid him and sent him away for his studies. She visited the railway station to see him off. She continued moving the beads of her rosary while reciting the prayers and before he left, she gently kissed the narrator at his head. She was too old by now and the narrator was not sure if he would ever be able to see her again as he was going away for five years.

However, when the narrator returned after five years, he found his grandmother at the railway station again who came to receive him. She held him in her arms. The narrator observed that though his grandmother was looking as old as she always was, she grew more religious, calm, and content. She continued reciting her prayers and the narrator could listen to her. Even on the day of his return, his grandmother didn’t forget to feed the sparrows and enjoyed her time with the birds. However, in the evening, something strange happened. For the first time, she didn’t pray. Rather she decided to invite women from the neighborhood. She was in the mood of celebration as her grandson had returned. She got an old drum and started to sing songs about the homecoming of warriors. The narrator and his parents tried to persuade her to stop and not to overstrain herself but she wouldn’t listen to them.

On the next morning, she fell ill. As the doctor came to check on her, he informed them that it was a minor fever. But the narrator’s grandmother insisted that it was her time to go. She was convinced that her end is near. She told everyone that she did not want to talk to anyone and would rather spend her last moments praying. She ignored everyone’s protests and started counting the beads in her rosary while praying.

After a short while, the narrator noticed that his grandmother’s lips stopped moving and the rosary fell from her lifeless fingers. She died a peaceful death. She was covered with a red shawl. When the narrator and others came to take her body for the funeral, they saw that a lot of sparrows had surrounded the grandmother’s body as if they gathered to mourn her death. All the sparrows were silent and appeared sad. The narrator’s mother offered some bread to the sparrows but they didn’t eat and quietly flew away after the grandmother’s body was carried away for the last rites.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Vanity of Human Wishes by Samuel Johnson | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Vanity of Human Wishes is a poem by Samuel Johnson that was first published in 1749. It is a 368-line long poem composed in 25 stanzas of varying length. All the lines are written in rhyming heroic couplets. It was Johnson’s second long poem after London and it was the first that he published under his name. The poem talks about the futility of human desires and ambitions and how political power, financial power, intellectual power, and even sexual power can offer no satisfaction or solace to anyone. The poet suggests that the only means to attain some worth is through the means of praying to God and that the antidote to vain human wishes is non-vain spiritual wishes. Johnson’s previous poem ‘London’ was the imitation of Juvenal’s Third satire and this poem is an imitation of Juvenal’s Tenth satire. The subtitle of The Vanity of Human Wishes is “The Tenth Satire of Juvenal Imitated”.

Juvenal satirized and mocked the victorious ways of the great General Hannibal in his satire while emphasizing that all his victories will go in vain. Samuel Johnson satirizes Charles XII of Sweden who too was a great warrior.

Sir Walter Scott, T. S. Eliot, Samuel Beckett, and many other authors of later periods stated that though they liked Samuel Johnson’s previous poem London, they absolutely loved The Vanity of Human Wishes and termed it as the greatest poem of Samuel Johnson.

Summary of The Vanity of Human Desires:

Stanza 1 Lines 1-20

The poem begins as the poet offers a wide view from China to Peru, as if extensively observing the whole world, and says that the observation is distressing. He sees that the whole of mankind is driven by "hope and fear, desire and hate,” while they hardly pay any attention to reason. He observes that these irrational emotions often lead people astray. The poet uses simile and says that people are often driven by pride, which misguides him like a "treacherous" phantom, or ghost, in the mist. He uses metaphor and describes fate as a ‘clouded maze.’ The poet says that entire nations fall and are destroyed because of schemes and decisions of power-hungry fools who are guided by their vengeance.

Stanza 2 Lines 21-28

The poet offers an example of gold to support his statement regarding the vanity of human wishes.

All human beings love gold, but gold is a ‘wide wasting pest’. It destroys everyone. The judge destroys the law to collect the gold, and people undertake crimes to collect the same gold. It is because of gold, criminals' record increases. The poet then says that no matter how rich we are, we can't buy truth or safety. On the contrary: more wealth brings with it more danger.

Stanza 3 Lines 29-36

The poet says that history teaches us that a vassal or a lowly person, or a hind has always cherished life in a better manner than a ‘lord’ because the lords are often busy while fighting with the ‘rival kings’ to increase or maintain power. The one who wins the power then twists the laws as per his wishes. While a lowly vassal is beneath the power, a rich traitor who strives for power, often reaches the ‘Tow’r’ (London’s Tower, the famous prison). A lowly person on the other hand sleeps peacefully in his small cottage even though the greedy vultures can confiscate whatever little the hind have.

Stanza 4 Lines 37-44

The poet then describes a poor happy-go-lucky traveler who has nothing to lose. He spends his time singing and cherishing the wilderness. The poet personifies ‘Envy’ and says that if envy seizes him he loses all his happiness because then, his only worry is how to gather more money. If his wealth increases, his peace gets destroyed. He no longer can sleep peacefully as he worries about being robbed. Even rustling leaves startles him and he is scared of shadows. He is afraid of the dark as it hides the thieves and he is afraid of light too because light shows what has been stolen from him.

Stanza 5 Lines 45-48

The poet says that everyone knows the ill-effect of wealth yet, people wish for more money. Everyone strives for gaining more money and power. They hardly realize the worries of a statesman or a politician who has to worry about his scheming rivals and who will inherit his title.

Stanza 6 Lines 49-68

Johnson invokes Democritus and says that during his time in Ancient Greece, the lack of worldly goods meant that people weren't so greedy. People were used to doing hard work that crushed their arrogance. He asks Democritus to observe and mock the current life in Britain where everyone is greedy, money-hungry, and arrogant. The poet continues to mock British society where fake debates are held with no constructive result. Mayors and statesmen are elected and inaugurated in their office with too many rituals and fanfare. The British society is so corrupt that the statesmen change laws as per their liking and the courts judge a case before hearing all the evidence. The poet says that if Democritus sees all that is happening in Britain, he will attack British society with his wits and criticism. He will teach that pleasure and pain, joys and sorrows are just toys that must not affect a human too much. The ‘robes of pleasure’ and ‘veils of woe’ are meaningless to Democritus.

Stanza 7 Lines 69-72

In these lines, the poet observes that even during ancient times, Democritus was full of scorn for people and humankind in general, and his scorn was justified. If we observe what people desire and wish for, we would see they deserve scorn.

Stanza 8 Lines 73-90

In this stanza, the poet continues to criticize people as he feels that they are too much concerned about wealth and power. However, troublemakers and enemies continue to hound them and they never feel safe. The powerful people are hated because of their corruption and when then they lose everything, they are mocked and insulted. Powerful people get their portraits hanged on palladiums and walls but people’s hatred becomes the reason for the fall of that wall.

Stanza 9 Lines 91-98

The poet wonders if Britain as a society wake up to his call and vanquish its enemies, those who are greedy and power-hungry? Or will Britain support and safeguard those corrupt favorites? The poet observes that those British who pretend to be the defender of freedom, never talk of the corruption of nobles, kings, and politicians. They are weak-willed and unable to stand against corrupt ways.

Stanza 10 Lines 99-120

In this stanza, Samuel Johnson begins to give examples of historical figures as a way of providing evidence for his views. He begins with Cardinal Thomas Wolsey to justify the vanity of human wishes. He wanted to acquire power after power so that everyone submits in front of his will. But once he reached the power everyone hates him. He did not get any followers nor did he get any warmth and affection from people. The desire for absolute power leads him to public hatred and dislike. Then Wolsey is oppressed by age and worries and illness, and so he seeks to recover by leading a monastic life. But his grief makes his illness worse. The memory of all his mistakes stings him. And with his last breath, he reproaches (criticizes) treacherous kings. It's not a good way to go out.

Stanza 11 Lines 121-128

The poet questions the reader directly and asks if they would prefer Wosley’s power and wealth that resulted in his certain downfall and pitiful death?

Stanza 12 Lines Lines 129-134

In this stanza, the poet remembers other historical figures who were power-hungry and greedy and mentions how they faced their downfall. Villiers ended up killed by an assassin. Harley died of disease. Wentworth ended up murdered. Hyde was exiled. All of these political figures ended their lives in misfortune because their desire for great power was indulged, even though these men were protected by kings and allied to them.

Stanza 13 Lines 135-164

Samuel Johnson discusses the life of academics, writers, and scholars in this stanza. He recounts his own experiences. When a student is first enrolled in college, he leaves his easy life in search of scholarly fame. The student tries to fill the Bodleian Library at Oxford University with his works. He pursues to surpass the talent of Sir Roger Bacon, the famous philosopher. The poet mentions the popular belief that the Bridge made in the name of Roger Bacon will collapse when a scholar greater than Bacon makes his way under it. The poet hopes that the students will lead a virtuous life and explore the truth. However, the poet says that the student faces a lot of troubles, temptations, and obstacles in their pursuit of knowledge. Bad delights, praise, difficulties, and laziness often slow them down. The poet says that a student’s heart must be hopeful but often they fall in grief and danger. He says that students must accept the truth that just like others, they cannot evade the doom that is destined for mankind. Once the students accept that misfortune and grief are a part of life, they can become fully wise. A scholar’s life is full of dangers including too much hard work, envy, failure, patrons, and jail. The poet says that a scholar must be open to any such difficulties. A scholar must not delude himself from praise and if he is too hopeful, he must remember Lydial's life and Galileo's death.

Stanza 14 Lines 165-174

In these lines, the poet says that even if a scholar succeeds in his scholarly struggles, he must not forget that his enemies and haters will also gain success and will gain equal prestige and fame. Johnson gives an example of William Laud, a learned man who was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633-45. He was executed in 1645 by his enemies—the Parliamentarians. The poet says that those with ‘meaner minds’ get minor punishment but the geniuses like William Laud suffer harsher punishments.

Stanza 15 Lines 175-190

In this stanza, the poet talks about Brave people and mentions Alexander the Great as “rapid Greek.” He mentions the great victories of the Romans and British rulers. Then he says that the actions of ‘Brave’ men were not guided by virtues and goodness, but they were eager and greedy for fame and power, they didn’t care about being good. The poet personifies ‘Reason’ and says that when Reason observes these ‘brave men’ he frowns upon them because, for their personal grandiose and fame, they brought whole nations to poverty and debt. While the wreaths for celebrating their victories at war decay soon, the pile of debt that they accumulate to be paid by the poor people of their nation doesn’t disappear so soon.

Stanza 16 Lines 191-222

The poet supports the vanity of human wishes with the example of Charles XII, the Swedish king who wanted to conquer the whole world. He had the desire to accumulate all the properties of the world. But having conquered the world he had to end up in the barren land. His desire for power and property leads him to death.

Stanza 17 Lines 223-240

In these lines, the poet confirms his statement about warlords by criticizing the warriors from the past. He mentions Persia's tyrant" (Xerxes) and "Bavaria's lord" the Roman king. The poet criticizes Xerexes as hostile and barbaric who was too greedy for power over others and got mad about it. At last, the Greeks confronted him and ridiculed his show of power.

Stanza 18 Lines 241-254

The poet ridicules Charles Albert, or Charles VII, the "bold Bavarian" who tried to get the throne of Austria. A woman named Maria Theresa raised an army of Croatian fighters and Hungarian horsemen to defeat him badly. Charles Albert was then ridiculed by his enemies and criticized by his own people. He died in ignominy and shame.

Stanza 19 Lines 256-282

In this stanza, the poet criticizes those who desire long lives. They do not realize that a longer life means more misery. The poet says that "Life protracted is protracted woe" because Time is the problem that destroys everything and takes away all possibilities of happiness. With time, even food and wine become tasteless and no luxury could soothe us. Even music cannot heal the troubles of time as old people fail to hear anything even if Orpheus the great Greek musician comes and play music for them. With age, the ability to reason also diminishes, and older people become senile and reach insanity.

Stanza 20 Lines 283-290

The poet says that with time, our body ages and becomes weaker. Many illnesses invade an old man’s body making him incapable but his greed to live more never ceases. He continues to lose everything he had accumulated and then dies penniless.

Stanza 21 Lines 291-298

In this stanza, the poet says that a moderate, healthy, and active life would be better than a long, unhealthy, sick life. He says that one should wish for a life in which he is free from scorn and crime. A person living moderate life enjoys better sleep and a clear conscience. The poet says that everyone would like to live a peaceful and happy life and no one would like to have an end to it.

Stanza 22 Lines 299-310

In this stanza, the poet says that even in a moderate life, things will continue to deteriorate. Even this peaceful life is plagued by misfortune. With each new day, there's a new sorrow: a sister might get sick or a daughter might be sad. A person living a peaceful life will also suffer the fear of death. Gradually, all joy of a moderate life also evaporates because nature brings changes and our viewpoints too change with them.

Stanza 23 Lines 311-318

In this stanza, the poet mentions some people from the past who lead a peaceful moderate life but suffered misery and troubles during the latter half of their life. He mentions "Lydia's monarch" (Croesus) who was visited by the Athenian wise man Solon. He mentions the Duke of Marlborough, who lead a good moderate life but then suffered strokes in his old age and was paralyzed later in his life until he died. Johnson also mentions the writer Jonathan Swift, who suffered ill health toward the end of his life.

Stanza 24 Lines 319-341

In this stanza, the poet describes the vanity of feminine beauty that appears to bring pride and happiness. He says that every mother wishes her child to be beautiful as beauty will bring happiness to her. However, the poet mentions the example of Lady Vane who became a mistress to King George II's son, Frederick. She was very beautiful but her beauty only brought troubles to her. Similarly, he mentions Catherine Sedley who became the mistress of King James II because she was very beautiful. But she had to suffer the anger and curse of her father Sir Charles Sidley who didn’t like King James II. The poet then criticizes young ladies who pursue luxuries and romance while ignoring knowledge and wisdom. He says that these ladies are vain, and they smile to manipulate and are interested in the latest romantic fashions. They ignore the voice of virtue and goodness, and they throw pride and prudence to the wind. Soon they find themselves the subject of scandals, gossip, and rumors.

Stanza 25 Lines 342-368

After criticizing all possible ways a man may try to look for satisfaction and happiness, the poet questions what is the correct way of finding satisfaction? In the concluding part of the poem, Johnson suggests developing the right frame of mind. We should not complain about anything. We should control our passion and will and be loving and mindful of mankind and that is sufficient for our happiness. The only way to get happiness is through God. The poet says that we can raise our voices to ask for good, but we have to leave it to Heaven to work things out for us. The poet ends the poem with the message that only true happiness is possible through prayers.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.

The Black Cat by Edgar Allan Poe | Themes, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Black Cat is a short story written by Edgar Allan Poe that was first published on August 19, 1843, in the edition of The Saturday Evening Post. The story is a prime example of the genre of Dark Romanticism or Gothic literature that emanated as a response to American Transcendentalism. Just like Transcendentalists, Dark Romanticists too considered intuitions over logic and emphasized human emotions and imagination. However, while transcendentalists showed a sense of optimism and goodness in nature, Dark Romanticists emphasized human fallibility. Works of Dark Romanticism frequently show individuals failing in their attempts to make changes for the better.

Themes of The Black Cat:

The main theme of Poe’s story is ‘Guilt.’ The Black Cat is often compared with Poe’s other story ‘The Tell-Tale Heart.’ In both these stories, a murderer carefully conceals his crime and believes himself unassailable, but eventually breaks down and reveals himself, impelled by a nagging reminder of his guilt. In The Black Cat, the narrator’s guilt brings the black cat back from the dead to haunt him. The cat represents his guilt. As the narrator feels more guilty, the cat becomes more active. Another important theme is the issue of sanity versus insanity. The narrator was aware of his fall. The story illustrates best the capacity of the human mind to observe its own deterioration and the ability of the mind to comment upon its own destruction without being able to objectively halt that deterioration. The story is that of Perversion and its effect. Poe highlights the probable ill effects of Alcoholism through this story. Another theme of the story is superstitions and supernatural beliefs. The title The Black Cat itself suggests superstitious elements. It is based on the superstition that a black cat brings bad luck.

Characters of The Black Cat:

The main character of the story is the unnamed unreliable narrator who is driven to madness. However, he assures the reader that he is not mad and since he is about to die the very next day, he won’t say a lie. The narrator clearly states that he is a great animal lover who believes that if your pet animal loves you and is loyal to you, it means you are a good person but if your pet shows disloyal behavior, it means you are not morally correct. The narrator had a good life but then he turned alcoholic. The narrator’s wife also remains unnamed. She is a submissive wife who also loves animals and dares to stand for them against the brutality she sees committed against the animals by her husband. Both the narrator and his wife were animal lovers. Then they brought Pluto, a black cat. While the relationship of the narrator was already deteriorating with his wife and other pet animals as he was suffering the ill effects of alcoholism, he made a strong connection with Pluto and it became his favorite pet. However, gradually he found himself more in the effect of alcohol, and soon Pluto suffered ill-treatment. The Second Cat remains unnamed. After the death of Pluto, the narrator’s house mysteriously catches fire and is destroyed. The narrator misses Pluto and when he sees this second cat, it appears just like Pluto as it is also black but with white fur on its breasts. The second cat lacks an eye just like Pluto. It signifies the narrator’s guilt who is extremely repulsed by the new cat and even tries to kill it. The Police also play an important role in unfolding the mystery. As they visit the narrator’s house to investigate the disappearance of his wife, they instigate him to succumb to his own guilt.

Summary of The Black Cat:

The story begins as the narrator informs that he is about to die the next day as he will be sent to the gallows. The narrator insists that though he may appear mad, he is not insane and he wants the reader to believe what he is about to say. He says that he wishes to reveal some household events that happened to him in the recent past and how they lead him to the brink of death.

The narrator informs that since childhood, he has always loved pet animals as he had many pets. He especially loved dogs because he believed that the usefulness and loyalty of a dog surpass what one may achieve from other people. However, as he grew adult, he did marry and luckily, his wife too loved animals. His wife always respected his love for animals and together, they had many pets including a goldfish, rabbit, dog, birds, and a monkey. Then they brought a new pet, a black cat. The narrator named the cat Pluto and he was very fond of it. The black cat became his favorite pet. The cat was unusually large and impressive. The narrator’s wife often claimed that black cats are witches in disguises but the narrator didn’t believe in superstition. Nevertheless, his wife always loved Pluto and so did he. Pluto too loved the narrator and would follow him everywhere. They developed a special bond that continued for years. However, the time was not good for the narrator. He suffered some losses in business and gradually got addicted to alcohol. He would often get drunk and that started affecting his mood as he lost much of his patience. Situations worsened and his relationships with the animals started deteriorating. Often he would show bouts of temper to the pet animals and hence, most of the animals started fearing him and keeping him away. However, Pluto remained loyal to him. Yet, he felt that Pluto too started avoiding and wouldn’t follow him like he used to do in the past. One day, when the narrator returned home, drunk, he felt that Pluto is avoiding him and he didn’t like that and Pluto bore the brunt of his rage. The narrator informs that though he is ashamed of his action he attacked the cat and gouged out one of Pluto’s eyes with a quill pen.

The next morning, the narrator felt horrible and ashamed of his cruel act. The eye socket of Pluto gradually healed but the cat learned the hard lesson to keep away from the narrator as it was fearful of him. The narrator was very sad about it as he actually loved Pluto which had been his only consistent supporter in his bad times. Pluto’s rejection of him forced him towards alcohol. Alcohol continued affecting him and soon his sadness turned to rage and perversion. The narrator says that Perversion is a natural phenomenon in human beings, to do the thing that one knows is wrong just because it is wrong. The narrator explains that he started liking the idea of harming his own pets. One day while he was too drunk, he grabbed Pluto and hung it from a tree. The black cat died. The narrator mentions that he was crying while murdering the cat because he actually loved the pet and he knew that he was committing a great sin for which there is no redemption.

The narrator slept while still in the stupor of alcohol. After some hours, the narrator and his wife were forced to wake up because of the raging sounds of flames. Their house was on fire and as the smoke was increasing, they ran out for safety. The narrator saw all their belongings being burnt in the fire. The next day, the narrator examined his burnt house and saw that all the walls except one had fallen because of the fire. The crowd gathered around the remaining wall that was still standing. The narrator observed that there was the shape of the black cat on the wall, being hanged by the tree. The wall was recently plastered. The narrator applies logic and thinks that when his home caught fire, someone might have thrown the dead body of Pluto through the window and it got stuck with the wall.

The narrator and his wife shifted to another building. One day, when the narrator was about to buy a barrel of alcohol, he saw a black cat sitting on the barrel. This cat too was missing an eye. It was exactly looking like Pluto with a little difference. This second black cat had a small patch of white fur on its breast. The narrator liked the cat and started patting him. The second cat too responded cordially and the narrator brought the second black cat to his home. His wife too welcomed the new cat. Though the narrator loved the cat, he wasn’t the same as before. He didn’t name this new pet. The narrator continued his tryst with alcohol and soon his perversion got to new heights. Though he brought the second cat himself, he started disliking the cat’s inquisitiveness and tendency to follow him everywhere. Not only that, his anger had increased many folds. Now he didn’t have any pets except the second black cat, and his wife who too started feeling the heat of his rage.

One day, the narrator and his wife decided to visit the cellar of their new house building to store some things. The second cat followed the narrator and his wife. While they were going down the stairs, the black cat jumped over and raced past them. The narrator felt a sudden rush of anger and he picked an ax and swung at the cat. The narrator’s wife interjected at the right moment and stopped him from killing the cat. While the cat was saved, the narrator couldn’t control his rage. In his anger, he attacked his wife with the same ax and she got killed right on the stairs to the cellar. The narrator somehow dragged her body to the cellar and decided to hide it in one of the walls of the cellar with cement and tar. After completing his job, he was convinced that no one would ever come to know that the dead body of his wife is hidden in the wall of the cellar. While the narrator was at peace, he noticed that the second black cat was mysteriously absent.

After four days, the police knocked at the narrator’s house. Someone had informed the police about the vanishing of his wife as nobody saw her for four days. The police questioned him about his missing wife and he answered that he didn’t know anything. The police investigated his whole house but the narrator was confident and free of any fear or guilt as he was convinced that the dead body of his wife will never be revealed. The police visited the cellar and the narrator boasted about the good strong build of the walls by tapping on them. As he tapped the wall in which he hid the body of his wife, a terrible wailing howl of a cat came from the inside of the wall. The narrator got extremely nervous. His face started showing off his guilt. The police decided to examine the wall to confirm from where the shriek of the crying cat came. As they broke the wall, they found the dead body of his wife, as the second black cat was sitting on her dead body. As the narrator saw towards it, the second black cat stared at him with its one eye.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Rabbit at Rest by John Updike | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Rabbit at Rest is the fourth and final novel of the Rabbit series that was published in the year 1990. It is one of the most detailed novels by John Updike in which he explores the desire for death that we all carry inside us using his character Harry ‘Rabbit Angstrom. The story is set in the late 1980s. Harry is an obese 55 years old man suffering from overweight and heart issues. He still suffers problems because of his libido. In the prequel (Rabbit is Rich) he engaged in the practice of wife-swapping and Thelma Harrison, the wife of one of his old college friends and competitor Ron became his long-term mistress. Rabbit and his wife Janice have retired and since the actual owner of the family business (Toyota Dealership) is Janice, she has handed it over to Nelson who is suffering from drug addiction and is unable to maintain the business. Harry still misses his daughter Rebecca who died as Janice accidentally drowned her in the bathtub during her infancy. However, his granddaughter Judy (daughter of Nelson and Pru) is 11 years old now and she has a good relationship with Harry. Nelson’s younger son Roy is less attached to Harry and seems wary and fearful of Rabbit, much like Nelson.

Characters of Rabbit at Rest:

Harry Rabbit Angstrom is again the protagonist of the novel. He used to be a vibrant handsome athletic basketball star of his college during his youth. But now he is an obese 55 years old man who has retired from his wife’s family business at a Toyota Dealership. His wife Janice has given the authority of the business to their son Nelson who is a drug addict and confused person and can hardly handle the business. Nelson’s wife is Pru and they have two kids. 11 years old Judy who is close to her grandfather and four years old Roy, who like his father Nelson, doesn’t have a cordial relationship with Rabbit. Ron is an old college mate of Harry who used to be a rival basketball player. Ron and Harry never had a good relationship though they often pretended to be friends. Thelma Harrison is Ron’s wife. She developed a relationship with Harry and she has been his mistress. Cindy Murket is another woman whom Harry lusted for during his younger days. Ruth is another woman with whom Harry had an extramarital affair and he impregnated her but left her without confirming if she gave birth to their child or not. Harry often wonders about that child. Annabella is the nurse treating Harry at the hospital in Florida and he suspects that Annabella is his and Ruth’s daughter.

Summary of Rabbit at Rest:

The story is set in the late 1980s, just before the decade of the 1990s. Harry Angstrom is now 55 years old. He never had good relationships with his wife Janice yet, they managed to continue their marriage for 33 years despite all odds. Their son Nelson is grown up now and he is married to Pru. He completed his graduation from Kent University. Harry got the ownership and management of Toyota Dealership in Brewer, Pennsylvania in inheritance after the death of his father-in-law. However, since his wife Janice was the actual owner, she decided to hand over the business to their son Nelson, forcing Harry to retire from business. Harry was not in favor of allowing Nelson to control the business but he couldn’t oppose Janice. Nelson is drug addicted and instead of paying attention to the business, he often siphons off money from business to his drug addiction. Harry knows about it and remains pensive and depressed about the future. Nelson continues to ruin the business and ultimately, he loses the Toyota Dealership.

After retirement, he has grown fat and because of almost no work, he is leading an unhealthy life and often remains depressed. He is addicted to eating snacks and fails to control himself. During the cold season, Harry and Janice retreat to Florida, and then they return during the summer. However, Harry doesn’t have a good relationship with Nelson and thus he often spends his time in Florida. He is very close to his granddaughter Judy who is now a growing-up teenager, turning out to be a beautiful lady. Harry feels that while Judy is becoming a responsible adult, he can be a child again with her. His grandson Ron doesn’t like Harry much.

One day, during his stay in Florida, when Judy was with him, he goes for a fishing excursion. During their fishing excursion, Judy falls off the boat and Harry realizes that she doesn’t know how to swim. The accident reminds him of his dead daughter Rebecca who accidentally drowned in a bathtub during her infancy. At the same time, Harry suffers a heart attack. Harry is too fat to act swiftly but he gathers all his courage to save Judy from drowning even while succumbing to his failing heart, redeeming his earlier failure.

He is hospitalized in Florida where a nurse Annabella is assigned to take care of him. As Harry recuperates, he develops a rapport with Annabella who looks familiar to him. He starts suspecting that Annabella is his daughter from his extramarital affair with Ruth. He tries to know about Annabella’s past but fails to come to any conclusion. Meanwhile, he learns about the death of Thelma Harrison with whom he developed a relationship during his trip to Carrebean in which they engaged in wife-swapping activity. Thelma had been his mistress since then but she died of lupus. As Harry gains health, he returns to Brewer to join Thelma’s funeral. During the funeral, Thelma’s husband Ron confronts Harry about his extramarital affair with his wife. Harry had no answer but he succeeds in calming down Ron and then they resolve their dispute during a gold game. Harry also meets Cindy Murkett whom he always lusted for during his younger years. However, she has completely changed and now she is a fat angry woman whom Harry cannot appreciate.

Harry suffers more depression and questions if there is any motive for his life. The only solace he gets is in seeing Judy grow up into an impressive teenager.

As Nelson lost Toyota Dealership, the family suffers monetary problems. Harry is still ill while Janice forcibly sends Nelson to a Drug and Alcohol Rehabilitation center. Janice herself starts working as a real estate broker. Meanwhile,. Harry develops an illicit relationship with Pru who had been too troubled by Nelson’s carelessness and debauchery. While the family starts recuperating from the financial problems, Janice discovers the illicit relationship between Harry and Pru and gets too much angry. She knew about Ruth, Thelma, and Cindy, but she couldn’t bear the thought that Rabbit made a physical relationship with his daughter-in-law. Rabbit realizes his mistake but couldn’t face Janice out of his cowardice and decides to run back to Florida.

In Florida, Harry decides to develop a new enthusiasm toward life and starts exercising and improving his health. One day, he sees a local boy playing Basketball and it reminds him of his college days. He decides to challenge the boy and they engage in a game. Harry struggles but succeeds in winning the game but as soon as he shouts hurray for his win, he suffers a major heart attack.

While he is hospitalized, Janice and Nelson rush to Florida to take care of him. They reach the hospital in Florida at the time. Harry is still alive. He sees Janice and asks for forgiveness. Janice forgives him for cheating on her, and he and Nelson express their acceptance of each other. Rabbit dies peacefully, having repaired his most intimate relationships.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English Literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Mark of Vishnu by Khushwant Singh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Khushwant Singh was an Indian author, lawyer, politician, journalist, and short story writer. The Mark of Vishnu is a short story written by Khushwant Singh which was published in his short story collection The Mark of Vishnu and Other Stories in 1958. The story is a satire against superstitions and tradition while it also explores the inhumanity, lack of values, and a false sense of superiority of the modern people. The story specifically targets the idea of the sanctity of all life forms embedded in Hindu traditions.

Characters of The Mark of Vishnu:

The main character of the story is Gunga Ram, a poor illiterate Brahmin man working as a servant in a household. He is an honest, pious but superstitious man who believed that “all life was sacred, even if it was of a serpent or scorpion or centipede.” Obviously, he always supported Mahatma Gandhi’s call for Ahimsa. He is a man who cannot discriminate even against other animals and species and believes that every living being, human, or otherwise, deserves equal respect and love. The four boys of the household are the other ‘collective character’ of the story. They are all teenagers as they study in the high school. The boys are very proud and they often ridicule Ganga Ram and make fun of him for his lack of education and traditional ways. They believe he is very superstitious and they have nothing to do with the idea of Mahatma Gandhi, or Ahimsa. They have a sense of superiority over Ganga Ram because of his lack of education, and poverty. They believe that irrespective of being elder to them, Gunga Ram doesn’t deserve any respect because he is just a servant. Their behavior suggests that even the other elders of the house do not treat Ganga Ram well. The narrator is one of the boys. The other important character is a snake, King Cobra whom Gunga Ram calls Kala Nag that lives in a hole near the sidewall of the house. The snake is poisonous but it has never harmed anyone ever. Gunga Ram is aware of the snake and so are the boys. None of them are frightened by the snake. Gunga Ram respects the snake as a life form representing the trinity of gods Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh. The boys are playful, ill-mannered, and often cruel to Gunga Ram.

Summary of The Mark of Vishnu:

The story begins with an argument between Gunga Ram and the four boys. The narrator is one of the four boys who see Gunga Ram putting some milk in a saucer and placing it near the hole in the side wall where a big black king cobra is hiding. When the boys counter Gunga Ram and ask him why he is doing so, Gunga Ram answers that he daily offers milk to the Kala Nag, "Every night I leave it outside the hole near the wall and it’s gone by the morning," he says. The narrator abuses Gunga Ram and calls him stupid. The boys argue that it must be the cat that drinks the milk because a snake does not drink milk and even if it does, it cannot drink that much milk. Gunga Ram opposes them and says that no cat goes near the hole. The narrator tells him that they have observed many dead snakes in their school laboratory kept in the methylated spirit. He then tells him about the incident when their teacher bought an exotic snake that could run both ways and kept it in an empty jar and as the snake tried to escape, it got killed. Gunga Ram turns his eyes shut as he disliked the idea of murdering snakes just to keep them in jars for exhibition. Gunga Ram believed in the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the creator, preserver, and destroyer. He believed that all life forms are equally respectful and represent god. He was most devoted to Vishnu. He would often oppose the boys when they would kill little insects, wasps, centipedes, scorpions, or others for their fun. For Gunga Ram, all life was sacred, even if it was of a serpent or scorpion, or centipede.

The boys considered Gunga Ram as an illiterate, foolish, superstitious Brahmin. The narrator declares that they (the boys) will kill his Kala Nag as soon as they see him. Gunga Ram says that he won’t let them kill the snake. He tries to dissuade them by saying that the snake has laid 100 eggs and that if they kill the snake, the baby snakes will take revenge on them. However, the boys point out that the snake is a male and cannot lay eggs. They ridicule Gunga Ram and say that Gunga Ram himself might have laid those eggs.

The boys say that instead of killing the snake, they will catch it alive and send it to Bombay where it will be milked to create anti-venom. Gunga Ram retorts that he has never seen a snake with udders and a snake cannot be milked.

The boys had no idea of Hindu beliefs, nor had they ever heard of Mahatma Gandhi and his idea of Ahimsa. For them, killing insects, birds, and snakes is just a fun game. Gunga Ram had his own ideas. He believed that snakes are the most vile species of nature, and if one can love and respect them, they prove the point of the sanctity of all life forms.

After some days, it started raining with the arrival of Monsoon. All the holes and pits got filled with rainwater. The snake was forced to get out and search for another safer place. However, the boys noticed the snake moving out on the slippery muddy ground. They took bamboo sticks and attacked the snake, breaking its back. But they didn’t kill the snake. The back of the snake was brutally broken but its hood was undamaged as the boys didn’t wish to ruin it. They planned to take the snake to their school for an exhibition. They stored the injured snake in a tin of biscuit and tied it with a strong string and kept it under the bed.

Gunga Ram had no knowledge of their activity. When the boys saw him, they asked him if he will keep the milk for the snake again? Gunga Ram answered that he will, to which the boys objected that the snake won’t need any milk anyways. Gunga Ram got suspicious and asked why? The boys didn’t reveal that they have injured and captured the snake, but they said that it is raining and there are many frogs on the ground. The boys said that the snake must have eaten some frog. They further ridiculed Gunga Ram and said that your milk is tasteless as you never add any sugar to it.

The next morning, Gunga Ram noticed that the milk was still in the saucer as the snake didn’t drink. He got suspicious. The narrator said that he already knew that the snake likes frogs more than Gunga Ram’s milk. However, Gunga Ram’s suspicion was growing over the boys. He kept a close eye on the boys. As the boys got ready for school, they took the tin of biscuits in them and before they could get to the school, the narrator informed Gunga Ram that his Kala Nag is safe in the tin and they are taking it to their school where they will keep it in the methylated spirit for exhibition.

Gunga Ram was shocked. He couldn’t believe that the boys got the snake despite him trying everything to protect it.

The four brothers reach their school and announce their catch. They present the tin with the snake to their science teacher. The boys are celebrated as a set of four brothers known for their toughness who just caught a big ferocious King Cobra. The teacher kept the tin on his table and pretended to be indifferent. He gave some problems for the students to solve and started preparing for the unboxing of the Kala Nag. He took a set of forceps from a methylated jar in which a dead Krait was kept and then he carefully started untying the tin of biscuit.

As soon as the teacher untied the string, the snake loomed out of the tin with its ferocious eyes. The hood of Kala Nag was taught and undamaged and though the snake felt difficulty in moving, it ferociously hissed and targeted the teacher’s face. The teacher moved backward to save himself and toppled on his own chair and fell to the ground. The king cobra raised his hood and hissed again. The teacher was petrified and so were all the students who stood on their desks and started shouting hysterically. Kala Nag might have slipped away its back was not that damaged but it was not able to move much. Somehow, the King cobra got off the table and dragged painfully towards the door. Meanwhile, Gunga Ram reached the school and he was standing right at the door of the class of the four brothers when he saw the Kala Nag on the teacher’s table. He came there to somehow save the Kala Nag and he had the same saucer and a jar of milk in his hand. He poured the milk into the saucer up to its brim and then he placed the saucer in front of the king cobra. With hands folded in prayer, he bowed his head to the ground craving forgiveness. In desperate fury, the cobra hissed and spat and bit Gunga Ram all over the head—then with great effort dragged himself into a gutter and wriggled out of view. Gunga Ram was badly bitten. The snake was highly venomous and Gunga Ram got blinded instantly. In pain, he covered his eyes with his hands and groaned in agony. Within a few minutes, he turned pale. A blue froth started coming out of his mouth and soon he collapsed. On his forehead were little drops of blood. When the teacher wiped Gunga Ram’s forehead, he saw the V mark on which the snake had dug his fangs.

The story may appear as a satire on superstitions, as a story of a foolish superstitious Brahmin who lost his life because of his blind faith in the sanctity of all life forms. The story suggests that no matter how much you respect nature, the wrath of nature will harm you indifferently. However, the story also points out at the inhumanity of the modern belief system and the lost human values n modern times.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!