O Captain! My Captain! By Walt Whitman | Structure, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘O Captain! My Captain!’ is a poem by Walt Whitman written and published in 1865 after the assassination of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. It is one of the four elegies written by Walt Whitman to mourn the death of Abraham Lincoln. The other three elegies are  "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd", "Hush'd Be the Camps To-Day", and "This Dust Was Once the Man".

The poem was first published in Sequel to Drum-Taps (1865), a collection of Whitman’s poems inspired by the events of the American Civil War.

‘O Captain! My Captain!’ is unique because it is the only poem by Walt Whitman with a regular meter and rhyme scheme. Walt Whitman is known as the father of Free Verse, none of his other poetic works follow the traditional metrical structure and rhyming schemes.  However, "O Captain! My Captain!" is organized into three eight-line stanzas, each with an AABBCDED rhyme scheme. Each stanza closes with the words "fallen cold and dead."

Structure of ‘O Captain! My Captain!’:

The first four lines in each stanza are longer, written in an iambic meter, and follow an AABB rhyme scheme. The succeeding four lines are shorter, deviate from the iambic meter of the preceding lines, and follow a CDED rhyme scheme. The difference in form between the first four lines and the last four lines in each stanza mirrors the thematic and emotional shifts implicit in the transition from one quatrain to another. In addition, the eight-line stanza with the first four longer lines and the last four shorter lines, offers a visual image of a ship. The speaker is an ordinary crew member of the ship described in the poem. The poem uses extended metaphor and the ship stands metaphorically for the United States and the speaker describes President Lincoln as "my captain."

The poet used extended metaphor, allusion, repetition, refrain, anaphora, irony, juxtaposition, consonance, alliteration, epistrophe, and apostrophe in the poem.

Summary of ‘O Captain! My Captain!’

Stanza 1 Lines 1-8

“O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,

The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won,

The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,

While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;

                         But O heart! heart! heart!

                            O the bleeding drops of red,

                               Where on the deck my Captain lies,

                                  Fallen cold and dead.”

In the first stanza, the speaker, a sailor, salutes his captain. The speaker refers to "my" Captain, indicating a more personal relationship than that between a superior and subordinate. He reports that their voyage is successful and nearly complete and that “the prize we sought is won.”

The ship, after enduring tough storms and impenetrable winds, made it back on the dock. Jaded and exhausted after a tiresome journey, the mission has been a roaring success. As the ship approaches port, the speaker describes the bells tolling and the celebratory crowds gathering.

The ship here represents the United States, and the voyage and struggles (tough storms) represent the Civil War. The captain is Abraham Lincoln, the president. As the ship approaches the shore, the speaker observes the people eagerly waiting for the ship in excitement. However, the mood suddenly shifts and becomes ‘grim and daring.’ In the fifth line, the repetition of "heart" works to establish the speaker's grief over the Captain's death. Figuratively, it represents the nation’s first reaction to Lincoln’s assassination. The poet used epistrophe in the line ending with the repetition of ‘heart.’

The speaker exclaims that his captain has fallen on the deck “cold and dead.” Drops of blood are flowing on the ship’s deck, the blood of Abraham Lincoln, who has been assassinated, shot dead.

The stanza ends with a refrain ‘Fallen cold and dead’ that will be repeated in all the remaining stanzas.

Stanza 2 Lines 9-16

“O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;

Rise up—for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills,

For you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths—for you the shores a-crowding,

For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;

                         Here Captain! dear father!

                            This arm beneath your head!

                               It is some dream that on the deck,

                                 You’ve fallen cold and dead.”

The speaker begins the second stanza with an apostrophe, he addresses the Captain, who is already dead and cannot answer. The sailor implores the now-dead captain to rise from the dead. He requests the captain to “rise up” and see the crowd eagerly rejoicing in his victorious return. He mentions the now-dead captain, “for you the flag is flung,” “for you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths”, “for you the bugle trills,” and “for you the shores a-crowding.”  All the things waiting on the dock work for both, a celebration and a funeral.

The tone and mood of the poem shift again in the next quatrain as the speaker acknowledges that his captain has “fallen cold and dead” but expresses hope that “it is some dream.” The speaker mentions the captain as ‘dear father!’ in line 13. The captain isn’t the biological father of the speaker, but he does consider him the father of the nation. His respect and reverence for the captain is great. Many Americans would have found it hard to believe Lincoln was dead, thinking it must be a dream or a rumor.

Metaphorically, America celebrated President Lincoln after the Union's victory in the Civil War. The feeling was short-lived.

Stanza 3 Lines 17-24

“My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still,

My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will,

The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done,

From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won;

                         Exult O shores, and ring O bells!

                            But I with mournful tread,

                               Walk the deck my Captain lies,

                                  Fallen cold and dead.”

In the third stanza, the speaker reckons that it is no dream, Alas! The captain is really dead. The speaker examines his deceased captain, whose “lips are pale and still” and who “has no pulse or will.”  The captain fails to respond to his cries of helplessness. The liveliness from the captain’s face has drained now. His pulse has stopped, and he’s unlikely to move from now on. Though the voyage is complete and the ship safely harbored, the speaker is wracked with grief. The speaker juxtaposes his feelings of mourning and pride. The crowd is still cheering and exulted to welcome the captain but the speaker has grim news to tell. The sailor feels uncomfortable as he needs to relay the bad news to the crowd that has gathered to celebrate. The poet used synecdoche to represent the whole American public by mentioning the little crowd gathered on the shore to celebrate the return of the victory ship.

The refrain ‘fallen cold and dead’ has been used three times and each time, the meaning changes. In the first stanza, the refrain suggests the first news that the captain is dead, Abraham Lincoln has been shot. However, the speaker doesn’t believe it. He addresses the captain and exhorts him to rise up in the second stanza. He tries to make the captain aware of how the crowd is eager to celebrate the victory while the captain is ‘fallen cold and dead.’ The speaker feels as if it is a dream, a bad dream that will break. He is yet not ready to believe it and mourn. In the third stanza, the poet realizes that the captain isn’t answering, his lips are pale and still. He notices there is no pulse. He reckons that the captain is dead indeed. Though the crowd is eager to celebrate, the speaker walks with a heavy and mournful heart, and the speaker accepts what has happened. He has to deal with his grief before leaving the ship.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Third and Final Continent by Jhumpa Lahiri | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘The Third and Final Continent’ is the ninth and the last story from the story collection ‘Interpreter of Maladies’ by Jhumpa Lahiri published in 1999. Interpreter of Maladies is noteworthy for its depiction of Indian immigrants to America. The book won the Pulitzer Prize (1999) and the PEN/Hemingway Award for Debut Fiction (2000).

The story explores the thin line between ordinary and extraordinary. The same thing that can be usual and ordinary for someone, may appear to be magical and splendid to someone else. Though we live in an ordinary world, surrounded by ordinary people, the experiences and the life itself are a spectacular gift. Another theme of the story is isolation and connection. All the main characters in the story are lonely and out of place for various reasons, but the chance encounters allow them to find companionship with one another. The story has a specific mention of the 1969 moon landing and offers a parallel to immigrants and the astronauts who landed on the moon for the first time.

Characters of The Third and Final Continent:

The story is told by an unnamed Indian Bengali man. His father died when the narrator was a teenager, and his death drove the narrator’s mother “insane.” His elder brother was already married and hence he faced loneliness and became emotionally reserved. In 1964, he went to London for higher studies. Europe is the second continent. In 1969, when he was 36 years old, he got a job as a librarian in Boston, America. At the same time, his marriage is arranged by his elder brother to an Indian girl named Mala. He returns to India and after marriage, while his wife is still waiting for the green card, he decides to move to Boston, leaving his wife in Calcutta. Mala is the narrator’s wife. Unlike her husband, she is used to living in a closely knit family. At first, the separation from her family caused by her wedding saddens her. When she meets her husband in Boston six weeks later, she no longer cries but they are still strangers. Through time and shared experience, she becomes accustomed to her new country and new life. Mrs. Croft is the narrator’s elderly landlady. She is 103 years old widow who lives alone. She taught piano lessons for forty years to support her family. She might have been born during the American Civil War. She has seen the days when there was no electricity. Thomas Edison created a reliable electric light bulb in 1879. She is lonely and isolated in her own country because she is a person out of time. She is so old that she can no longer comprehend what is happening in the modern world. The 1969 moon landing seems astonishing to her, and the concept that men and women might talk to each other unchaperoned is unseemly. She berates her own 68-year-old daughter Helen for conversing with the narrator without a chaperone. When Helen asks Mrs. Croft how she would react if she saw a young woman in a miniskirt, Mrs. Croft snaps, "I'd have her arrested." In a way, there is a parallel to the moon landing and Mrs. Croft who has journeyed from the past into the present. Helen is Mrs. Croft’s 68-year-old daughter. She is more modern in dress and sensibility than her mother and also more practical and distant than the narrator. She visits and delivers groceries to her mother on Sundays.

Summary of The Third and Final Continent:

The unnamed narrator informs that he is an Indian from Calcutta Bengal. He left Calcutta in 1964 for higher studies in London where he attended lectures at the London School of Economics. In 1969, he was offered a full-time job as a librarian at MIT in Boston, America. Around the same time, his marriage was arranged by his elder brother and his wife, so he flew to his wedding in Calcutta. He spends a few nights with his bride, Mala. While Mala waits to receive a green card, the narrator flies to America alone, expecting Mala to be with him in Boston in a month or two. He reads a guidebook warning that America is less friendly than Britain. On the plane, he learns that two men have landed on the moon. While he is indifferent to the news, he notices some men cheers for it and a woman prays for the achievement. He arrived in Boston on July 20, 1969, the same day as the moon landing.  In America, he must navigate his own new world, adjusting to changes in currency, driving patterns, shopping, and diet. He studies the differences and expectations and finds a cheap room at the YMCA in Central Square for his first weeks in the U.S. He finds it difficult to live there because of the noise and crowdedness. He comes across an ad for a room for rent and calls. He is told the room is only rented to boys from Harvard or Tech (MIT). He makes an appointment for the following day.

He meets the landlord, an elderly, eccentric lady named Mrs. Croft. She is dressed as if she lived at the turn of the century. They talk of the moon landing and Mrs. Croft demands that the man call it “splendid.” She further asserts that whenever they discuss the moon landing, he must respond to it as ‘splendid.’ The man is baffled, but clearly, she is impressed that he is punctual, that he declares the event “splendid,” and that he does indeed work for MIT. He is baffled by her several rules, one of which is “no lady visitors.” Still, the room is nicer than the one he has, so he rents it. Chatting with Mrs. Croft after work becomes part of his daily routine. She is touched by his attention to following her rules and how he places the rent money in her hands, instead of leaving it on the piano.

When rent is due, instead of putting it on the ledge above the piano as requested, he hands the envelope stuffed with dollar bills to Mrs. Croft. She is confused and doesn’t take it at first. That night, when he returns from work, she is still holding the envelope. They do not talk about the moonwalk. She tells him that what he had done was very kind. On Sunday, he meets Helen, 68 years 68-year-old woman, the daughter of Mrs. Croft. She talks to him and reveals that her mother thinks the narrator is “a gentleman,” an unusual compliment from her. She further informs that Mrs. Croft is 103 years old. This startles the narrator. He thought Mrs. Croft was younger due to her strong personality. Due to her age, he starts to see Mrs. Croft as more vulnerable. Helen informs that she lost her father at a tender age and Mrs. Croft continued to support her family by providing piano lessons to others. The narrator feels amazed by hearing this. His own mother was unable to bear the pain of losing her husband when he died and went insane. He realizes that Mrs. Croft is a strong person. He now understands why Mrs. Croft felt so amazed by the news of the moon landing. In her youth, there was not even electricity in homes. At her age, all these new technological advancements and innovations are no less than miracles for her. He begins being more polite, caring, and respectful towards Mrs. Croft.
After six weeks, Mala's passport and green card are ready, and she informs that she will soon be joining the narrator in Boston. The narrator thinks about his wife and remembers how after their wedding, she wept every night thinking of her family only five miles away. He wonders how Mala will behave in America, so far from her roots. Since Mrs. Croft doesn’t allow married couples in her house, nor does she allow any ‘lady visitor,’ the narrator decides to look for another apartment before Mala arrives. He moves out of Mrs. Croft’s room. Outwardly, she seems indifferent to his departure and the narrator is somewhat hurt. The narrator meets Mala at the airport, also without fanfare. He speaks to her in Bengali – the first time in America – and he takes her home. She presents him with two blue sweaters she has made him, but they fit poorly. It takes time for him to get used to having someone there, anticipating his needs. He and Mala are like strangers. He reluctantly gives her a few dollars, thinking only that it is a duty, and, when he returns, he finds more kitchen tools and a tablecloth. Mala is making the apartment their home. Still, they talk little.

One day, the narrator takes Mala to visit Mrs. Croft. Mala decides to wear a traditional Indian dress, a sari. The narrator feels a bit disturbed, feeling what Mrs. Crofts will think of her. She might not have seen a woman in Sari in her whole life. Helen answers the door and explains that her mother injured her hip in a fall and cannot move from the parlor. When he meets Mrs. Croft, he realizes that her strong personality is still intact. Mrs. Croft curiously looks Mala over, assessing her. This moment of evaluation causes the narrator to sympathize with Mala and her immigrant experience, which reminds him of his own. Mrs. Croft approves of her, calling her a “perfect lady.” The narrator laughs, and he and Mala share smiles. The barrier between them starts to come down. Mrs. Croft informs that she was able to call the police herself after her accident. When the narrator hears that, he exclaims splendid! Suggesting that it was a wonderful work. The courage and strength of Mrs. Croft to take care of herself at such an old age is no more miraculous than the first steps of men on the moon. The couple continue to explore the city together and tell each other stories. They grow closer and develop a strong between them. One day, the narrator sees Mrs. Croft's obituary in the newspaper. Hers is the first death he mourns in America, just as hers was the first life he had admired. Mala consoles the narrator.
Thirty years later, the narrator and Mala are American citizens, living in town outside of Boston. Their son goes to Harvard. They haven’t strayed much farther than Boston, living outside of the city and still remembering important landmarks from their lives despite the changing city. They still visit Calcutta and maintain some Indian rituals, but realize that as time passes, their son may not do so. The narrator feels worried about his son who will live alone in Harvard, away from his family. However, he feels there is no obstacle his son can’t overcome. He believes his son will succeed just as the narrator survived on three continents nearly 30 years ago, in the age when astronauts, "heroes forever," spent hours on the moon.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Greek Literary Criticism | Socrates in English Literature | Literary Criticism

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Greek literary theory is a fascinating area that explores the principles and concepts that shaped ancient Greek literature and its criticism. Greek Literary Criticism, also known as Classical literary criticism has shaped the way we evaluate and understand literature today. It provides a framework for analyzing texts, focusing on aspects such as language, structure, and themes. Classical literary criticism dates back to Antiquity, when both Greeks and Romans engaged in interpreting and evaluating literary works. This period laid the groundwork for future literary analysis. Greek literary theory emerged with significant contributions from philosophers and playwrights who analyzed the nature of literature and its impact on society. The key figures of Greek literary theory and criticism are Plato and his disciple Aristotle. Plato was a student of Socrates, another important ancient Greek philosopher whose ideas shaped the way towards modern literature. Socrates, while not a literary critic in the traditional sense, had a profound influence on the development of literary criticism through his philosophical inquiries and dialogues. 

The key concepts of Greek literary theory include Mimesis, the idea of imitation, where literature reflects reality. Plato and Aristotle had differing views on mimesis, with Plato often critiquing it for being a mere copy of the real world, while Aristotle saw it as a means of understanding human experience. Plato critiqued poetry and its moral implications, arguing that it could mislead people by appealing to emotions rather than reason.

Greek theorists categorized literature into genres, such as epic, tragedy, and comedy, each with its own conventions and purposes. Aristotle introduced the idea of Catharsis in his work "Poetics." The concept of Catharsis refers to the emotional release that audiences experience through tragedy, allowing them to purge their emotions. Aristotle provided a systematic analysis of poetry and drama, emphasizing the importance of plot, character, and theme in his works. Aristotle's "Rhetoric" explores persuasive language and its effects. The ideas formulated by Greek critics have influenced not only Western literature but also the broader field of literary theory. Their discussions on rhetoric, poetics, and aesthetics continue to resonate in modern literary studies.

Greek literary criticism is not just a historical subject; it remains relevant as it provides tools for understanding the complexities of literature. Ancient Greek critics engaged in the analysis and evaluation of texts, focusing on their artistic qualities and moral messages. This laid the groundwork for future literary criticism. Greek literary theory has had a lasting impact on Western literature and criticism, influencing countless writers and theorists throughout history.

Socrates:

Socrates is often credited as the founder of Greek philosophy and in a sense, he can be considered as the progenitor of literary theory and criticism too. Socrates authored no known texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. Plato’s student Aristotle too wrote at length about Socrates and his ideas. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle mentions that while pre-Socratic philosophy had only been theoretical, and concerned with natural science, Socrates turned the waves and delved his thoughts on understanding human nature and life. In 399 BC, Socrates was formally accused of corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and of impiety, i.e. worshiping false gods and failing to worship the gods of Athens, and then he was punished by death.

Socratic Method:

Socrates is best known for his Socratic Method, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue that stimulates critical thinking. This method encourages questioning and examining beliefs, which can be applied to literary texts to uncover deeper meanings and assumptions. Socrates believed that written words can't effectively teach anything worth knowing because they can't defend themselves in dialogue. He thought that reading words is similar to looking at a lake instead of swimming in it. Socrates believed that the meaning of some words, such as "justice" and "soul", is a convention for using the word, not the essence of the thing it names. The Socratic Method is a style of teaching that involves asking questions to help students arrive at their own understanding. The Socratic method is a form of argumentative dialogue that involves asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas. It encourages participants to explore complex concepts and beliefs through discussion. The method relies heavily on asking probing questions that challenge assumptions and encourage deeper reflection.  It is a collaborative process where both the questioner and the respondent engage in a back-and-forth exchange, often leading to new insights. The goal is to foster critical thinking skills, helping individuals to analyze their beliefs and the reasoning behind them. The Socratic method encourages a dialogue between readers and texts, where questions are posed to explore themes, characters, and narrative techniques. This method allows for a deeper understanding of the text by examining various interpretations. By asking probing questions, participants can challenge their assumptions about a literary work. For example, one might ask, "What is the author's intent?" or "How does the character's journey reflect societal values?" This critical inquiry helps uncover layers of meaning.

Let us take an example of Shakespeare's Hamlet. A Socratic discussion might begin with a question, ‘What do we think is the main theme of Hamlet?" The respondent may answer, "It's about revenge. Hamlet wants to avenge his father's death."

The Inquirer may ask further, “Is it really just about revenge? What else might be driving Hamlet's actions?"

Another respondent may say, "Maybe it's about grief and loss. He's really struggling with his father's death."

The Inquirer may further ask, “How does Hamlet's grief manifest itself? Is it just sadness, or is there something else going on?"

The third respondent may point out, "Hamlet is very introspective. He seems to be questioning the meaning of life and death."

The Inquirer will agree and may pose a new question, “What specific lines or scenes support this idea of existential questioning?"

The fourth respondent may add, "The famous 'To be or not to be' soliloquy is all about that, isn't it?"

The Inquirer will obviously agree and may ask further questions, "Absolutely. And what does that soliloquy tell us about Hamlet's character? Is he simply depressed, or is there something more complex at play?"

This back-and-forth questioning continues, exploring the play's themes, characters, and language with increasing depth. The Inquirer isn’t offering answers, rather he is guiding the respondents to uncover their own interpretations through critical thinking and dialogue.

Socratic Views on Poetry:

In Plato's dialogues, particularly in "The Republic," Socrates critiques poetry and its role in society. He argues that poetry can mislead people by appealing to emotions rather than reason. This perspective raises important questions about the purpose and value of literature. Socrates believed that literature should promote virtue and moral understanding. He often questioned the ethical implications of characters and actions in stories, suggesting that literature should contribute to the moral development of individuals. This idea was further explored by later literary critics including Sir Philip Sidney and William Wordsworth. Socrates' ideas significantly influenced his student Plato, who further developed these concepts in his own works. Plato's exploration of literary forms and their impact on society laid the groundwork for future literary criticism.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss Literary criticism and will further discuss Classical literary critics. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Anti Hero | Literary Terms | Literary Terms and Devices

 

The term antihero refers to a fascinating character type in literature that stands in stark contrast to the traditional hero. An antihero is a protagonist or main character who lacks conventional heroic qualities such as bravery, morality, or idealism. Instead, they often possess traits that are more flawed or complex. They may exhibit moral ambiguity, making decisions that are questionable or unethical. Their imperfections can make them more relatable to readers, as they reflect real human struggles and conflicts. Anti-heroes usually exhibit significant personal issues or dark traits that contribute to their complex nature.

Purpose of Anti-Hero in Literature:

The antihero's complexity often leads to rich storytelling, as their journeys can be both compelling and thought-provoking. 

Antiheroes provide a unique lens through which to explore complex moral and ethical dilemmas. Their morally ambiguous actions challenge traditional notions of heroism and invite readers to question societal norms and expectations. They allow authors to create more relatable characters, as their flaws and struggles resonate with the audience on a deeper level. This relatability can create a more engaging and thought-provoking narrative. Furthermore, antiheroes often serve as a vehicle for social commentary, highlighting the hypocrisy and contradictions within society. Their journeys can expose the flaws in systems and institutions, prompting readers to reflect on the complexities of human nature and the world around them. Finally, the unpredictable nature of antiheroes and their capacity for both good and bad actions can create a more dynamic and suspenseful plot, keeping readers on edge.

Difference between an Anti Hero and a Tragic Hero:

Both antiheroes and tragic heroes are complex characters with flaws, but they differ significantly in their roles and the nature of their flaws. Antiheroes often show moral ambiguity. They might be selfish, morally gray, or even outright criminals, but they are not necessarily driven by evil intentions. Their actions are often driven by self-interest, survival, or a distorted sense of justice. Tragic Heroes, on the other hand, offer examples of Hamartia (a fatal flaw). Tragic heroes possess a fatal flaw—a character defect or error in judgment—that ultimately leads to their downfall. This flaw is often a noble quality taken to an extreme, such as excessive pride (hubris), ambition, or indecision. Hamlet's indecision leads to the deaths of eight people. 

Anti-heroes offer a sense of relatability to the readers. Even if their actions are reprehensible, the audience might sympathize with their struggles, even if they don't condone their choices. The narrative often centers around the antihero's perspective, allowing the audience to understand their motivations and internal conflicts.

Tragic Heroes offer a feeling of catharsis. Tragic Heroes typically occupy a position of power or nobility. Their fall from grace is therefore more impactful. The audience experiences catharsis—a purging of emotions—through witnessing the tragic hero's suffering and downfall. This emotional response is central to the tragic genre.

The fate of a Tragic Hero is sealed by their tragic flaw and the consequences of their actions. They usually meet a tragic end. On the other hand, an anti-hero is free from such a predetermined fate. An anti-hero often shows redeeming qualities and if offered an arc or possibility of improvement within the narrative. An antihero may or may not have a happy ending, depending on the narrative.

Anti-Hero and the Villain:

Unlike an anti-hero, a villain is a clear antagonist whose actions are malicious and who serves primarily to create conflict for the hero.

While both antiheroes and villains are complex characters, they differ significantly in their roles and relationship with the narrative.  The story is often told from the antihero's perspective, allowing the audience to understand their motivations and struggles. In the case of a villain, the story is usually told from the perspective of the hero or other characters who oppose the villain. The villain's motivations are often presented as purely selfish, evil, or malicious. While an anti-hero is morally ambiguous, Villains are typically depicted as unambiguous antagonists. Their actions are clearly harmful, and their intentions are malevolent.  Villains are often designed to be unrelatable, representing pure evil or forces of antagonism. Villains serve as obstacles for the hero, creating conflict and driving the plot. They are not the focus of the narrative in the same way as an antihero.

Examples of Anti-Heroes:

Let us first remember Prem Chopra who played the anti-hero role in the 1967 Hindi film Upkar. He played a similar role of anti-hero in the 1969 Hindi film Do Raaste!

Currently, Walter White from Breaking Bad has become an iconic example of an anti-hero in modern storytelling. He is a high school chemistry teacher turned methamphetamine manufacturer, whose transformation raises questions about morality and choice.

Some important examples of Anti Heroes from English literature are:

1) In The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, Holden Caulfield is a disenchanted teenager who struggles with the complexities of adulthood and societal expectations.

2) In Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov, Humbert Humbert deeply flawed narrator whose obsession leads to morally reprehensible actions, challenging readers' perceptions of love and morality.

    3) In Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte, Heathcliff brooding and vengeful character whose tumultuous love for Catherine Earnshaw drives much of the novel's conflict.

4) Patrick Bateman from American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis is a wealthy investment banker with a dark, violent side, representing the excesses and moral vacuity of the 1980s.

5) In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Jay Gatsby is an antihero, a self-made millionaire whose pursuit of love and the American Dream leads to tragic consequences.

6) Scarlett O'Hara in Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell is an anti-hero. She is a strong-willed woman who uses her charm and cunning to survive the Civil War, often at the expense of others.

Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Macbeth are clear and famous examples of anti-heroes. One may consider Brutus from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar a fine example of anti hero too.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss various literary terms and literary devices used in English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Metaphors by Sylvia Plath | Structure, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘Metaphors’ is a short poem by Sylvia Plath published in her poetry collection The Colossus and Other Poems first published by Heinemann, in 1960. Plath is credited with advancing the genre of confessional poetry and is best known for two of her published collections, The Colossus and Other Poems and Ariel, and The Bell Jar, a semi-autobiographical novel published shortly before her death. The Colossus and Other Poems is the only volume of poetry by Plath that was published before her death in 1963. In 1981, all her previously unpublished poems were published under the title ‘The Collected Poems’ for which she won a posthumous Pulitzer Prize in 1982.

Plath was clinically depressed for most of her adult life and was treated multiple times with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). She committed suicide in 1963. She was a confirmed patient of Bipolar Disorder and that appears in her works which are often marked with distinct ambiguity.

Sylvia Plath wrote Metaphors in 1959. Abortion was totally illegal in the US until 1973. The FDA didn’t approve the first oral contraceptive for women until 1960. There were no controlling measures for women to avoid pregnancy in that period. Sylvia Plath expresses the lack of control in this poem. The speaker is a pregnant woman who is going through significant physical changes due to her pregnancy. She expresses her deep anxiety about motherhood and her fears of losing her own body through a series of metaphors in this poem. It should be noted that women often suffer mood swings during pregnancy and Sylvia Plath was a patient of Bipolar Disorder. The metaphors illustrate the often disorienting nature of pregnancy, which seems to make a "house" or a "stage" out of the speaker's body and threatens to render the speaker herself insignificant.

Structure of Metaphors:

The poem consists of a single nine-line stanza and each line consists of nine syllables, which suggests a planned and intentional structure because pregnancy is also nine months long. The poem is written in Free Verse with no specific rhyme scheme or metrical order. However, Plath predominantly used iambs in the poem. The speaker of the poem is a first-time pregnant woman. Plath was pregnant with her first child, Frieda, at the time of the poem's composition. Though most critics concur that Plath's healthiest relationships were with her two children, the poem suggests a deep ambivalence about motherhood. The basic conflict in the poem is that of duty vs. individuality. The narrator feels that by subsuming herself into the duty of motherhood her own individuality is being stifled.

The poet used metaphors, personification, allusion, asyndeton, imagery, consonance, assonance, alliteration, and parallelism in the poem.

Summary of Metaphors:

Lines 1-9

“I'm a riddle in nine syllables,
An elephant, a ponderous house,
A melon strolling on two tendrils.
O red fruit, ivory, fine timbers!
This loaf's big with its yeasty rising.
Money's new-minted in this fat purse.
I'm a means, a stage, a cow in calf.
I've eaten a bag of green apples,
Boarded the train there's no getting off.”

The poem begins with the first metaphor and the speaker playfully declares that she is a riddle in nine syllables. The tone appears playful as the speaker encourages the readers to solve the puzzle and guess the correct answer by the end of the ninth line. Obviously, the speaker will keep offering clues throughout the poem and the first clue is that the poem has nine lines, the first line contains nine syllables, and human pregnancy is also nine months.

In the second line, the speaker offers two more metaphors. The first one is ‘elephant’. Elephants are special animals showcasing a strong bond between mothers and newborns. They live in herds of mothers and children, led by an older matron. Male elephants are driven away at adulthood and live a largely solitary existence, save for mating. The speaker is describing the changes that are visible as her pregnancy grows. The other metaphor in the same line directly refers to her physical form. Her womb is bulging, as ‘a ponderous house’ for the new inmate. While both metaphors suggest that her size has grown, the second metaphor also indicates that her body is no longer her own, the other one shares it.

In the third line, the speaker describes her belly as a melon and suggests the unproportionate growth of her body. While her belly appears like a melon, her legs haven't changed, they are still slim, and vine-like (two tendrils), a comical image. The speaker offers imagery of her strolling around her room on her two thin legs with a swollen huge belly.

In the fourth line, the speaker looks down at herself and sees a ‘red fruit’, the watermelon she just expressed, and ‘ivory,’ her beautiful white skin. ‘Ivory’ is related to the elephant she mentioned in line 2. It should be noted that one can attain ivory only when the elephant is dead. Her own individual self is dying, which she used to be before her pregnancy, and she is becoming something else, a mother while creating a new one. The third metaphor in this line is ‘fine timbers,’ relating to her thin legs, carrying, guarding, and protecting the womb. The poet ends the line with an exclamatory mark as she is in disbelief while observing the change she is going through.

In the fifth line, the speaker explains her pregnancy with another close metaphor. She compares herself to a loaf of bread that is bulging because ‘yeast is rising.’ Yeast is a living thing that grows inside the loaf while eating it. In this line, the speaker suggests that not only her, but the the child in her womb is also changing.

In the sixth line, the speaker mentions herself as a ‘fat purse’ in which new money is being minted and is taking shape. She describes her child as money, or currency of life, something precious that needs to be protected. The purse is fat or full, there is sufficient wealth to be guarded. However, the purse never uses the money. It is owned by someone else. The speaker reflects on her relationship with her husband (Ted Hughes) here, suggesting she has been used.

In the seventh line, the speaker says she is a ‘means’, and a "stage" for another. Everything happening to her is for someone else, not for herself. She indicates how her individuality is being taken away. She expresses no joy with her increasing size. Instead, she is too well aware of how she has lost control of her body. The line suggests that pregnancy was not her idea, as if she was forced to go through it. Another metaphor being used is ‘cow in calf.’ The speaker compares herself with another animal, a huge cow, often used for milk and meat. The calves are often used to milk the cows and then are sold.

In line eight, the speaker says that she feels her belly is full of unripe fruits, 'green apples'. It is common for pregnant women to experience food aversions or loss of appetite. Hormonal changes cause a heightened sense of smell and nausea. Often they feel their belly is already full and any strong smell may cause vomiting. “A bag of green apples” is a metaphor for her unborn child. As the child is still developing in her womb, she mentions it as unripe fruit. The poet also alludes to the story of Genesis in which Eve ate a fruit from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and it caused the fall. The speaker feels she has eaten a bag full of green apples.

In the last line (ninth), in fact, in the last three lines, the speaker suggests that it might be the case that she was unwilling to get pregnant, but anyhow, she is pregnant now and determined to take care of it. In the last line, she compares pregnancy to an unstoppable train she has boarded. She is bound for an unknown destination and unable to stop. She and her baby are heading off into the future, the wheels are turning and both will have to wait until the train reaches the terminus.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Anti Climax | Literary Terms | Literary Terms and Devices

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse!

Anticlimax is a fascinating concept in literature, speech, and everyday life! It refers to a situation where an event or experience turns out to be less exciting or significant than anticipated. An anticlimax is often described as a disappointing or ineffective conclusion to a series of events. It can also refer to a sudden shift from a serious subject to something utterly frivolous, trivial, or ludicrous.

Let us understand the idea of Anti Climax with the help of some examples:

The Grand Reveal: Imagine a detective story building suspense for weeks, with mysterious clues and shadowy figures. The culprit is finally revealed... to be the forgetful janitor who accidentally misplaced the evidence. Now consider the movie War of the Worlds! It is a film that follows humans at war with aliens. Steven Spielberg succeeds in creating the tension of the expected apocalypse, an abrupt end of humanity at the hands of the aliens. So the audience would expect the ending to be, you know, a war with aliens. But instead, the aliens simply die because they can’t handle Earth’s bacteria. That’s anti-climactic.

The Epic Battle: A hero prepares for a climactic battle against a fearsome dragon, wielding a legendary sword. The dragon is defeated when it trips over a rock and breaks its neck.

The Romantic Gesture: A character spends weeks planning a grand romantic gesture for their beloved – a skywriting proposal, a flash mob, a serenade. The beloved is too busy on their phone to notice. Remember the movie Sadma (Kamal Hasan and Sridevi).

The Big Announcement: A company CEO dramatically pauses during a press conference, building anticipation for a major announcement. The announcement is that they're changing the company logo to a slightly different shade of blue.

Everyday Life: You spend hours preparing a gourmet meal for your friends, only to discover you're out of salt at the last minute. The meal is bland.

Anti-Climax as a Literary Device:

In literature, an anticlimax can serve as a figure of speech where a series of ideas or events are presented in descending order of importance. This can create a humorous or ironic effect. A classic example might be a suspenseful buildup in a story that leads to a mundane or silly conclusion, like a hero facing a formidable villain only to discover that the villain is afraid of cats, or pigeons (remember Red John from The Mentalist?)

Purpose of Anti-Climax:

An anticlimax is a rhetorical device that functions as an abrupt let-down or tonal shift at the end of a narrative build-up. Anticlimaxes can be used to evoke humor, surprise, or even disappointment, depending on the context. They can also serve to highlight the absurdity of a situation.

Anticlimax is an absolutely essential ingredient in mock epic poems. It's the very engine that drives the humor and satire. Mock epics take the elevated style, grand themes, and serious tone typically associated with epic poetry and apply them to trivial or ludicrous subjects. The anticlimactic effect arises from the jarring contrast between the high style and the low subject matter. The reader expects a grand, momentous outcome, but instead receives something insignificant or even comical. This incongruity is the source of much of the humor. For example, in Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock, the 'epic' battle over a lock of hair culminates in a rather underwhelming resolution, creating a significant anticlimax that underscores the poem's satirical intent. The anti-climax isn't just a stylistic choice; it's the core mechanism through which mock epics achieve their comedic and critical effect, highlighting the absurdity of applying heroic conventions to everyday situations.

The elaborate preparations for the seemingly insignificant act of cutting off a lock of hair are a prime example of anticlimax. The epic machinery of the poem (the invocation of the Muse, the detailed descriptions of the characters and their actions) is used to describe something ultimately frivolous, creating a humorous contrast.

The Battle of Sexes, The mock battle between Belinda and the Baron, replete with epic similes and descriptions of weaponry, culminates in the seemingly trivial act of stealing a lock of hair. The grandiosity of the conflict is undercut by the triviality of the prize, generating a comedic anticlimax. The poem invokes supernatural forces and beings typically associated with grand and serious events. However, these forces are ultimately used to describe and comment on the relatively minor social conflicts and vanities of the upper class. The portrayal of the sylphs and other supernatural beings, with their elaborate hierarchies and interventions, is ultimately used to shape the events of the seemingly minor incident of the stolen lock of hair. Pope opens the poem with a grand invocation to Queen Anna, using elevated language that is typical of epic poetry. However, the poem's central conflict revolves around the petty theft of a lock of hair, 

In Canto 3, Pope says

Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey,

Dost sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea.

Queen Anna represents the upper-class society that the poem satirizes. Her mention serves to elevate the trivial conflict over the stolen lock of hair, contrasting the seriousness of her royal status with the frivolity of the characters' concerns.

In Samuel Butler’s Hudibras, the lengthy and detailed descriptions of Hudibras's preparations for battle often culminate in anticlimactic results, highlighting the character's incompetence and the absurdity of his pretensions. The poem's extended metaphors and similes, often drawn from classical epics, are similarly deflated by their application to trivial or farcical situations.

Understanding anticlimaxes can enhance a reader’s appreciation of storytelling and rhetoric!

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss various literary terms and devices often used in English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Treatment of Bibi Haldar by Jhumpa Lahiri | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘The Treatment of Bibi Haldar’ is the eighth story from the short story collection ‘Interpreter of Maladies’ by Jhumpa Lahiri, published in 1999. Interpreter of Maladies was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2000. The story talks about a poor Indian woman who has been suffering from a mysterious disease since her childhood that resembles epilepsy. The story hints at female hysteria, a diagnosis of emotional imbalance in women common in the Victorian era, that would be remedied by sexually stimulating the patient. The story is based on the themes of gender roles in society and touches on the issue of discrimination against women. The author adopted a collective or plural first-person narrative style and the narration offers the point of view of the whole society of neighboring women in the village of Bibi Haldar.

Characters of ‘The Treatment of Bibi Haldar’:

Bibi Haldar is the main character of the story. She is a 29-year-old poor unmarried woman living in a village in India. Bibi suffers from an epilepsy-like illness that causes seizures. Her father tried to find a cure for her situation and consulted various doctors practicing allopathy, homeopathy, Ayurveda, and other fields of medical science however, she couldn’t be cured. After her father’s death, there was no one to take care of her but one of her cousins and his wife. She is left in the meager care of her eldest cousin and his wife. Her family does not help her look for a husband despite her desires. When Haldar's daughter becomes ill, they blame Bibi. When they move away, it is up to the village women to assume her care. Bibi withdraws from society until the women, fearing she is ill, find her mysteriously pregnant. She soon fixes up her cousin's cosmetics stall and provides for her son. Haldar is Bibi Haldar’s elder cousin. He doesn’t care much about Bibi Haldar and her illness. Even though Bibi Haldar helps his wife with homely chores and also helps him manage his business of cosmetics in the village, he considers her a burden that he is forced to suffer. He and his wife share irrational fears of Bibi's effect on their child. Haldar is driven out of business by the women who disagree with his treatment of Bibi. He abandons his cousin by leaving town without a word. Haldar’s wife is more concerned about profits than with the health of her cousin-in-law. She suspects that Bibi Haldar may cause sickness to her child and banishes Bibi from their home. ‘We’ the narrators represent all the other women in the town. Women have the authority in the narrative even if they do not in their village. In retaliation for the ‘ill’ treatment of Bibi, they withdraw their business from Haldar’s cosmetics shop, ruining him. But they only act collectively, not as individuals. The title refers to both, the ill-treatment of Bibi Haldar by her cousin and his wife, and to the "relations" prescribed to cure her condition. Anyhow, she miraculously improves after getting pregnant, which suggests that her own will to improve increases as she feels responsible for her child yet to be born. After giving birth, she confidently rebuilds the fallen business of cosmetics that her cousin left.

Summary of The Treatment of Bibi Haldar:

Bibi Haldar, an Indian woman who is 29 years old, has suffered for the greater part of her life from a mysterious, epilepsy-like ailment that no doctor or priest has been able to alleviate or cure. When her father was alive, he tried everything possible to find a cure. He consulted allopath, homeopath, and Ayurveda doctors, but nothing helped. After X-rays, medical probes, and auscultations, doctors often offered random advice but nothing could cure her. And then her father died. She still was unmarried, and alone. Bibi Haldar was forced to live in the care of a cousin, Haldar, and his wife, who run a cosmetic shop despite knowing that her cousin and his wife do not like her much. Bibi keeps the inventory of her brother's cosmetics stall and is watched over by the women of their community. She is provided only meals, a room, and a length of cotton to replenish her wardrobe each year. Bibi sweeps the store, wondering loudly why she was cursed to this fate, to be alone and jealous of the wives and mothers around her. She often would complain about the mistreatment she got from her cousin’s wife. The women were sympathetic to her and would often go to Haldar’s cosmetic shop with the intent to help Bibi. One day, Bibi suffers a terribly violent fit. The women of the neighborhood insist Haldar take Bibi to get some medical care. Finally, he takes her to a polyclinic run by a palmist. The palmist prescribes marriage as a cure, “Relations will calm her blood,” he says.

The idea excites Bibi who begins dreaming of her marriage. The village women too look for a suitable match. However, Bibi’s cousin and his wife are indifferent. Her cousin feels she is unfit for marriage, while his wife believes that Bibi is cursed by the devil. Her cousin also feels that Bibi at his house offers enough help and because of sympathy, women gather around his shop, increasing his sales. Thus, he is uninterested in trying to get Bibi married. The village women meet Haldar’s wife and ask why they are reluctant to marry Bibi off to someone suitable. Haldar’s wife says that she is already 29 years old, too old to get a good match. Furthermore, she has no skills to be a good wife. Her studies ceased prematurely, she is not allowed to watch TV, she doesn’t know cooking, sewing, or how to please a man. Bibi Haldar insists on her marriage and demands to be photographed for potential in-laws, but Haldar refuses; Bibi retaliates by shrugging off her work in favor of telling stories about Haldar and his wife. Haldar relents and places an ad: “GIRL, UNSTABLE, HEIGHT 152 CENTIMETERS, SEEKS HUSBAND.”

Nobody notices the ad. However, the women of the village keep trying to teach Bibi about her wifely duties. Haldar doesn’t like it much but he cannot stop women from visiting his shop and meeting Bibi.

That November, Haldar's wife is pregnant, and she becomes suspicious that if Bibi remains close to her, her would-be child may also get affected by her curse or illness. Bibi is forced to keep away from her for fear of infecting the child. Her plates are not washed with the others, and she is given separate towels and soap. 

One day, Bibi suffers another fit near the bank of the pond and falls there. The men on the bank lift her up, take her to her home, and give her a sedative medicine. When they reach her home, her cousin and his wife refuse to let her in. Bibi is then forced to sleep in the store room. Haldar’s wife suffers a difficult delivery of the child and gives birth to a daughter. She insists that Bibi should not be allowed in the house. Bibi’s cousin though let her in the basement. Bibi suffers more loneliness and unchecked fits. When the women of the village notice her bad situation, they express their concerns to her cousin. However, Haldar ignores their pleas and as a result, the women decide to stop buying anything from his shop. Haldar suffers losses but is not ready to mend his ways and treat Bibi well. In autumn, Haldar's daughter becomes ill and his wife cruelly blames Bibi. She is forced to go back to the storeroom. Bibi suffers from disappointment, depression, and her regular fits. She stops socializing—and stops searching for a husband as if she is retiring from life. The women of the village notice all this and totally discard buying anything from Haldar’s shop. By the end of the year, Haldar suffers unbearable losses and decides to pack his bags and move away with his family, leaving no trace of him, while leaving Bibi alone in the storeroom. Anyhow, the women of the village come to know about her and they decide to inform another known relative of Bibi but he too doesn’t respond. The women spruce up the storeroom and send their children to play on the roof of her storeroom to alert others in the event of an attack. At night, however, Bibi is left alone. She avoids talking to other women and never leaves the roof of the storeroom.

In spring, women notice that Bibi is vomiting and soon they find out that she is pregnant. They try to ascertain who is the father. They ask if Bibi was forced or raped but she says that she can’t remember what happened. The women visit the storeroom to inspect and find that everything is tidy and nothing has been disturbed, thus, there is no evidence of rape. They decide to teach Bibi how to take care of herself during pregnancy. Soon she gives birth to a son and the women notice that Bibi is full of confidence. She not only skillfully takes care of her newly born son, but also manages to take Haldar’s old creams and wares out of the storeroom and reopen his shop. The women willfully help her and spread the word of mouth about her shop and soon the stall is providing enough money for Bibi to raise her son. The women keep trying to pry upon her and ask her about the father of her son but she never discusses that. However, the women notice that now Bibi seems to be fully cured. They wonder if the ‘relationship’ with the unknown man and her son cured her, or was she cured by the sense of responsibility and freedom from the demeaning and humiliating environment she suffered under her cousin and his wife.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!