Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Plato is considered one of the most influential thinkers and philosophers of the Ancient world. His ideas continue to have a profound influence on modern thought, particularly politics, education, and philosophy. Plato's ideas have influenced modern literature in many ways, including his views on poetry, rhetoric, and the role of art in society.
Plato was born around 428 B.C., during the declining years of the Golden Age of Pericles’ Athens. He witnessed the defeat of Athens by Sparta and the political chaos that followed. He was highly influenced by the pre-Socratic thinkers Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Homer, and Parmenides. His teachers included Cratylus and Socrates. As a youth, Plato observed the political change of the Oligarchic governmental setup of Athens shifting towards Direct Democracy. Socrates was condemned for corrupting the minds of the Athenian youth and Plato was one of his ardent students. Plato was disillusioned by the political turmoil and the consequences of democratic governance, particularly after the execution of his mentor, Socrates, which he attributed to the flaws of the democratic system. It was the end of the Golden Age and the wonderful flowering time of Greek art and literature was over. It was a period when philosophers and thinkers were criticizing dramas and poetry including that of Homer. Literature was considered immoral, corrupt, and degenerate and often faced hostile criticism. At the age of 40, Plato founded his Academy, the philosophical school in which he delivered lectures to students gathered from throughout the Greek world. Plato went against his own mentor Socrates's idea who questioned the very idea of a teacher’s ability to impart knowledge. Plato believed that the system of the Academy was going to lead to social progress. One of the students from northern Greece who joined the Academy was Aristotle. The Academy included an array of instructors teaching Geometry, History, Mathematics, Astronomy, and other subjects.
Important works of Plato:
His most important works include The Republic, Apology, Ion, Gorgias, Symposium, and Phaedrus. Plato wrote most of his works in the form of Dialogues, following the idea of the Socratic method. Scholars often group the works of Plato into three categories namely, Early, Middle, and Late. His works Apology, Georgia, and Ion are considered Early works while Republic, Phaedrus, and Symposium are considered Middle works.
Apology:
"Apology" is one of the dialogues written by Plato, which recounts the trial of Socrates in 399 BCE. Socrates was charged with corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety (not believing in the gods of the state). The "Apology" is divided into three main parts:
1) The Defense: Socrates addresses the charges against him.
2) The Verdict: The jury's decision on his guilt.
3) The Sentencing: Socrates proposes his own punishment and reflects on his fate.
Socrates argues that he is a seeker of truth and wisdom, not a corrupter. He believes that questioning and dialogue serve to enhance understanding and virtue. One of the most famous quotes from Socrates is: "The unexamined life is not worth living." He emphasizes the importance of self-reflection and philosophical inquiry. Socrates maintains his commitment to his principles, even in the face of death. He prioritizes his moral integrity over conformity to societal expectations. He cross-examines his accusers, questioning their knowledge and motives. He argues that he is being persecuted for his philosophical inquiries rather than any wrongdoing. Socrates claims that he is fulfilling a divine mission by encouraging others to seek wisdom and virtue.
After his defense, the jury finds Socrates guilty. In a dramatic turn, he suggests that he should be rewarded for his service to the city rather than punished, showing his unwavering commitment to his beliefs. Ultimately, he is sentenced to death by drinking hemlock.
Plato's "Apology" not only serves as a record of Socrates' trial but also presents profound philosophical reflections on ethics, knowledge, and the role of the philosopher in society. It highlights the tensions between individual conscience and societal norms, a theme that remains relevant today.
The Republic: The Republic is one of the most important works of Plato which is divided into ten sections or books. It is often placed in the middle period of Plato’s dialogues. In this work, Plato offers his arguments against Direct Democracy. He says that citizens often lack the necessary knowledge and expertise to make informed decisions on complex political issues. In a direct democracy, decisions are made by majority rule, which can lead to irrational choices. He also warns that charismatic leaders could manipulate public opinion and sway the masses, leading to decisions based not on reason but on emotional appeal. This can result in demagoguery, where leaders prioritize personal gain over the common good. Direct democracy can create instability as various factions vie for power and influence. Plato argued that this could lead to chaos and conflict, undermining the social order. In contrast to direct democracy, Plato proposed the idea of the philosopher-king in his work The Republic. He believed that the most qualified rulers should be wise philosophers who possess knowledge of the Forms, particularly the Form of the Good. Plato clearly supported Meritocracy over Popularity.
Allegory of the Ship:
In Books V-VI, Plato uses the Allegory of the Ship to illustrate his critique of democracy. He likens the state to a ship and the sailors to the citizens. Just as an untrained crew cannot successfully navigate a ship, an uneducated populace cannot effectively govern a state. Only those with navigational skills—knowledge of justice and governance—should steer the ship (the state).
Theory of Forms :
Plato’s ‘Theory of Forms’ is a framework for understanding reality, knowledge, and existence. He says that Forms are abstract, perfect, unchangeable concepts or ideals that transcend the physical world. The physical objects we encounter in everyday life are merely imperfect representations or copies of these ideal Forms. Forms represent the highest standard of quality. For example, the Form of Beauty itself is perfect, while beautiful objects in the physical world are only imperfect reflections of this Form. A beautiful object, say a rose, may appear beautiful to some people but some others may not find it beautiful, thus it is imperfect. However, beauty, an abstract idea, is perfect. Let’s take another example of Squares. If a group of students are asked to draw a square, each of the students will probably draw a different square. Some may draw a square with a side of 2 cm, and some may draw a square with a side of 10 cm. Some may not be so precise while drawing the angles to 90 degrees. Since each imitation of a square is different and depends on the individual drawing it, it is imperfect. The form, the abstract idea of square is perfect as it is the same and unchangeable for everyone. Unlike material objects, which are subject to change and decay, Forms are eternal and immutable. Forms are the essence of various properties, but they are separate from their physical manifestations. For instance, all circular objects share the Form of Circularity, which defines what it means to be a circle. The Form of Goodness, often regarded as the highest Form, represents the ultimate principle of goodness and the source of all other Forms. The Form of Beauty represents the essence of beauty, which all beautiful things attempt to emulate. Mathematical Forms are concepts such as numbers and geometrical shapes that exist as perfect Forms, separate from their physical manifestations. All tangible objects are imperfect copies of their respective Forms. For instance, a beautiful painting reflects the Form of Beauty but is not the Form itself. True knowledge, according to Plato, involves understanding the Forms rather than merely grasping the physical instances. This aligns with his belief that philosophers, who seek to understand the Forms, possess true knowledge. Plato suggested that the Forms represent the spiritual realm while the imitations or physical, tangible objects represent the Physical realm or the world of appearances based on those forms. Knowledge derived from the physical realm is considered inferior because it is based on perception and opinion rather than true understanding.
Allegory of the Cave:
The Allegory of the Cave is one of the most famous passages in Plato's work, The Republic. It serves as a powerful metaphor for his Theory of Forms.
Imagine prisoners who have been chained inside a dark cave since birth. They face a blank wall and cannot see the outside world. The only light comes from a fire behind them, which casts shadows on the wall they are watching. The prisoners perceive these shadows as reality since they have never seen anything else. They hear echoes from the outside world but cannot see the actual objects or people that produce these sounds. One prisoner manages to break free from their chains and escapes the cave. Initially, he is blinded by the sunlight outside and struggles to adjust to this new reality. As the escaped prisoner’s eyes adjust, he sees the real objects, the vibrant colors of nature, and eventually the sun, which represents the ultimate source of truth and knowledge.
The enlightened prisoner returns to the cave to free the others. However, he is met with resistance and disbelief. The remaining prisoners are comfortable in their ignorance and are hostile to the idea of leaving the cave. The allegory illustrates how difficult it can be to accept new ideas and truths that challenge established beliefs. The prisoners prefer the familiar shadows to the unknown reality outside. The Allegory of the Cave reflects Plato’s Theory of Forms, where the shadows represent the imperfect physical world, while the objects outside the cave symbolize the perfect Forms or Ideas that represent true reality. The journey from the cave to the outside world symbolizes the philosopher's path from ignorance to knowledge. It emphasizes the importance of education and the philosopher's role in society. Plato suggests that philosophers, having seen the truth, must return to the cave (society) and help others achieve enlightenment, even if they face resistance or hostility.
Criticism of Poetry:
The Republic reveals Plato’s complex views on art, representation, and the nature of knowledge. Plato argues that art or poetry is a form of imitation or mimesis and therefore it is deceptive, it distorts reality. He believes that poets create representations of reality rather than reality itself. Since poets imitate the world of appearances, they are two steps removed from the truth (the Forms). To explain his mimetic criticism of art, he used the example of a chair. Let us say a painter draws a picture of a chair. Now the physical real chair itself is imperfect and different from the real Form of the chair and the picture of a chair is a further imitation of that imperfect thing and hence it is much more imperfect and impure. The same is the case with poetry. Let us say a good deed is done by a person. Now this good deed is imperfect and an imitation of the Form of Goodness. If a poet decides to describe this good deed that actually happened, the words will further imitate what did happen and will further push it away from the Form of Goodness. Mimetic criticism views literary works as Imitation. According to Plato, because poetry imitates the material world, it ultimately misleads people about the nature of reality. He emphasizes that the physical world is just a shadow of the true world of Forms, making poetry a mere shadow of a shadow. Art or poetry is not good. It is thrice removed from reality because it is a copy of a copy of Form. Plato criticizes poetry for appealing primarily to emotions rather than reason. He argues that poetry can provoke strong emotional responses, leading individuals to act irrationally or unethically. Poetry, in Plato's view, can undermine rational thought and self-control. He worries that exposure to emotional content can lead people away from virtuous behavior, as they may become consumed by their passions rather than guided by reason. Plato believes that poetry can shape a person's character negatively. He argues that if individuals are exposed to negative portrayals of gods and heroes—such as immoral behavior—this can influence their own actions and attitudes. Let us say a popular hero, or actor smokes on the screen and drinks alcohol, the viewers who like him will be prompted to imitate him and thus, such depiction will promote vices in society. To protect society, Plato suggests that poetry should be censored to ensure that only morally uplifting and truthful representations are allowed. He particularly criticizes the portrayal of the gods in Homeric epics for their immoral actions. Plato places philosophy above poetry in the hierarchy of knowledge. He argues that philosophers seek to understand the eternal truths and the Forms, whereas poets merely convey subjective experiences and illusions. Despite his criticisms, Plato acknowledges that poetry can have a role in education if it promotes virtue and truth. However, he emphasizes that the primary aim should be to foster rational thought and moral development. One may say that the idea of Poetic justice raised its head from Plato’s The Republic.
Apart from these, Plato discussed rhetoric and the art of persuasion in Phaedrus. He discussed rhetoric, ethics, and the nature of power in Gorgias while debating the merits of rhetoric versus philosophy.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the concepts and theory of Literary Criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
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