Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Longinus is the conventional name given to the author of the influential literary treatise "On the Sublime" (Peri Hypsous), a foundational work of literary criticism from antiquity. Though his exact identity remains uncertain, the text is traditionally attributed to Cassius Longinus, a 3rd-century Greek rhetorician and philosopher. However, modern scholarship often dates the work to the 1st century AD and suggests it may have been written by an unknown Greek author.
Longinus defines the sublime as excellence in language that evokes elevation, grandeur, and intense emotion, transcending mere persuasion. It is what makes a work powerful, unforgettable, and awe-inspiring. He identifies five key sources of sublimity in literature: Greatness of thought (lofty ideas), Strong emotion (pathos), Figures of speech (skillful use of rhetoric), Noble diction (word choice and phrasing), and Dignified composition (harmonious arrangement). He also criticizes False sublimity and warns against bombast (inflated language), puerility (immature style), and affectation (forced emotion). He criticizes Misdirected Passion – Emotion misplaced or excessive, lacking context, and Stylistic Excess – Fashionable but hollow rhetoric that prioritizes trend over truth.
While rhetorical skill is important, Longinus emphasizes that natural genius and passion are essential for sublime writing. He praises Homer, Sappho, and Demosthenes as exemplars of the sublime.
Introduction to On The Sublime:
On the Sublime by Longinus is a foundational work of literary criticism believed to have originated in 1st-century Rome. The text explores the nature of aesthetic greatness in writing, analyzing both exemplary and flawed passages from nearly a thousand years of literature. Longinus defines the sublime as a transcendent quality—whether intellectual, moral, artistic, or metaphysical—that eludes precise measurement or imitation. Its power lies in its ability to evoke awe and elevate the reader beyond ordinary experience.
The treatise is structured as an epistolary work, likely composed as a letter or series of letters, though its final section—reportedly on public speaking—has been lost. It is addressed to Posthumius Terentianus, a cultured Roman public figure. Longinus draws from an impressive range of sources, referencing about fifty authors, including Homer, Sappho, and Plato, as well as the Book of Genesis. This inclusion of Hebrew scripture has led scholars to speculate that Longinus may have been familiar with Jewish traditions or even a Hellenized Jew himself.
Central to Longinus’s argument is the idea that achieving the sublime requires "moral excellence" in the writer. Some theories suggest that he may have avoided attaching his name to the work to preserve this very virtue, which could explain the ambiguity surrounding its authorship. He also contends that while societal norms matter, transgressing them does not automatically disqualify a writer from greatness—what matters most is the authenticity and power of expression. However, he warns that while freedom nurtures eloquence, excessive liberty can lead to its decline, undermining the conditions necessary for sublime art.
Longinus identifies five key sources of the sublime: (1) grandeur of thought, (2) intense emotion, (3) skillful use of rhetorical figures, (4) noble diction, and (5) harmonious composition. Its effects are profound: it overwhelms rationality, stirs deep emotion intertwined with pleasure, and creates a sense of alienation that compels the reader to engage with the creative process. True mastery, Longinus argues, lies not in the writer’s self-expression but in their ability to evoke these responses in the audience.
Among the writers he admires, Homer stands supreme, alongside Sappho, Plato, and Aristophanes, whose works generate sublime pleasure. However, he critiques later poets like Apollonius of Rhodes and Theocritus for lacking the boldness required to reach such heights. Risk-taking, in Longinus’s view, is essential for greatness. He laments the decline of oratory, attributing it to the erosion of both political freedom and moral integrity—conditions he sees as vital for nurturing the "high spirit" that produces sublime art.
The modern understanding of the term "sublime" stems from translations of Longinus’ Greek hypsos, which more accurately denotes "the essentials of a noble and impressive style." Ironically, Longinus’ own writing has been criticized for excessive hyperbole and occasional tediousness, falling short of the perfection he extols. The text’s transmission history is equally complex: by the 10th century, it was miscopied into a manuscript that conflated its author with Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Later, it was mistakenly linked to Cassius Longinus despite the chronological inconsistency. After resurfacing in the 16th century through editions by scholars like Francis Robortello, the treatise gained renewed influence during the Baroque period and beyond, with its ideas continuing to shape literary and philosophical discourse to this day.
Longinus conceives of sublimity as literature's highest achievement - the resonant voice of a noble mind that simultaneously demonstrates masterful craftsmanship and creates deep emotional transformation. This sublime quality transcends ordinary persuasion, instead delivering a revelatory experience that strikes with sudden, overwhelming power while elevating the reader's consciousness. Sublimity is the echo of a great soul—writing that elevates through both excellence of composition and profound emotional impact.
At its core, the sublime represents a perfect synthesis of opposing creative forces. It balances raw, inspired genius with disciplined technical skill - the divine spark of creativity with the hard-won mastery of rhetorical technique. This dynamic tension between nature and art produces writing that doesn't merely communicate but fundamentally alters the reader's perception.
The sublime's distinctive power lies in its dual capacity to dazzle the intellect while moving the spirit. Like a lightning bolt, it illuminates truth with shocking clarity while simultaneously stirring the soul to greater heights. This transformative experience lingers beyond the initial encounter, continuing to shape the reader's understanding long after the words are first absorbed. For Longinus, such writing doesn't just achieve aesthetic perfection - it approaches the realm of revelation.
Edmund Burke, in his work A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757), revived interest in Longinus by distinguishing the sublime (terror, awe, vastness) from mere beauty. Burke’s psychological approach aligned with Longinus’ focus on emotional impact, influencing later Romantics.
James Scott on Longinus:
The characterization of Longinus as the "first Romantic critic" comes primarily from 19th-century Romantic writers and scholars, who saw in On the Sublime a precursor to their own literary ideals. James Scott (a 19th-century literary critic and classicist) wrote influentially about On the Sublime in his Essays on Ancient Literature (1876), offering a Victorian-era interpretation of Longinus that bridges Romantic idealism and emerging philological rigor.
Scott argued that Longinus was ahead of his time in focusing on the reader’s emotional response (anticipating modern reader-response theory), the psychology of awe, rather than just formal rhetoric, and the "ineffable" quality of great art—why some works transcend technical analysis. Scott compared Aristotle’s Poetics and Longinus and suggested that while Aristotle focused on structure (plot, mimesis), Longinus stressed on effect (emotion, transport). Aristotle emphasized rules (unity and decorum), while Longinus emphasized artistic Genius and suggested that inspiration is greater than rules. Scott notes that while Aristotle analyzes poetry, Longinus experiences it.
Why Longinus Was Called the "First Romantic Critic"
Romantics saw in On the Sublime key themes that mirrored their own revolt against Neoclassical rigidity. Longinus placed Emotion over rules; he valued pathos and ecstasy rather than just technical perfection. Longinus supported Nature and grandeur. His examples (e.g., Homer’s storms, Sappho’s love poetry) celebrated wild, overwhelming forces, much like Romantic nature worship. Unlike Aristotle’s focus on structure, Longinus praised individual creativity and divine inspiration ("The sublime is the echo of a great soul"), and thus, Longinus praised artistic genius. Longinus cared about how literature moves the audience, a proto-Romantic idea, and thus emphasized subjectivity and reader response.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of literary criticism and Classical literary theories. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
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