Wanting to Die by Anne Sexton | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Anne Sexton's poem "Wanting to Die" is a letter to her friend and psychiatrist Anne Wilder. In it, Sexton responds to Wilder's persistent question of why she was attracted to suicide. The poem was later published in Sexton's book Live or Die, for which she received the Pulitzer Prize for poetry in 1967.

"Wanting to Die" is a poem by Anne Sexton that explores themes of despair, mental illness, and the contemplation of suicide. The poem is written in a deeply personal style that reflects Sexton's own struggles with depression and her complex relationship with life and death. Anne Sexton was a leading figure in the late 1950s and early 1960s Confessional Poetry movement. Confessional Poetry is known for its focus on the poet's personal experiences and emotions, often delving into themes of trauma, mental illness, and intimate relationships. Sexton's poem "Wanting to Die" is a prime example of this style of poetry. The poem is often studied for its raw honesty and emotional depth, and it further solidified Sexton's reputation as a significant voice in confessional poetry.

Structure of ‘Wanting to Die’:

The poem "The Exorcism of Emily Dickinson" by Anne Sexton consists of 33 lines written in free verse, lacking any specific rhyming scheme or meter. These 33 lines are set in 11 tercets (3-line stanzas). This structure contributes to the poem's rhythmic flow and allows for a compact expression of complex emotions. The poem follows a conversational tone and addresses an unnamed "you," creating an intimate and personal dialogue. This direct address enhances the confessional nature of the poem, inviting readers into Sexton's inner world. This poem is a journey through despair that reflects the speaker's struggle with suicidal thoughts. The poet employs vivid imagery and symbolism throughout the poem, for instance, comparing the desire for death to an addictive substance (unnameable lust). The poem suggests that dying can become a drug, a passionate rush, something to long for. 
Summary of ‘Wanting to Die’:

Stanza 1 Lines 1-3

“Since you ask, most days I cannot remember.

I walk in my clothing, unmarked by that voyage.

Then the almost unnameable lust returns.”

The speaker in this poem seems to be answering a question from the reader. The speaker says that on most days, she can't remember what she was asked about. For her, it's almost as normal as walking around in her clothes. She walks around in her clothes and almost inevitably an "unnamable lust returns." This 'unnamable lust' is her suicidal tendency, her wish to embrace death. 

Stanza 2 Lines 4-6

“Even then I have nothing against life.

I know well the grass blades you mention,

the furniture you have placed under the sun.”

In the second stanza, the poet clarifies that she has nothing against life. She understands the value and luster of life and cherishes the little pleasures of life, such as a blade of grass or furniture placed in the sun. Her desire to embrace death does not mean that she blames her life or does not enjoy its simple fleeting pleasures. It is not that she is troubled by the difficulties of daily life and contemplates suicide as a rescue; rather, death is a lust for her.

Stanza 3 Lines 7-9

“But suicides have a special language.

Like carpenters they want to know which tools.

They never ask why build.”

In this stanza, the poet extends the metaphor of furniture and uses simile to suggest the tendency of those who like the idea of death. She says that people who commit suicide only ask themselves about the means, not the ideas behind them. And she would know since she made several attempts at suicide during her life.
Stanza 4 Lines 10-12

“Twice I have so simply declared myself,

have possessed the enemy, eaten the enemy,

have taken on his craft, his magic.”

In this stanza, the poet clarifies her love for life, mentions the desire for death as an enemy, and affirms her suicidal tendencies too. She’s tried to kill herself before (twice), and she is intimately aware of the thoughts and actions surrounding suicide. Twice, she has defeated the enemy.

Stanza 5 Lines 13-15

“In this way, heavy and thoughtful,   

warmer than oil or water,

I have rested, drooling at the mouth-hole.”

The poet adopts a passive tone to suggest her internal struggle. There is a tinge of discordance, of elements, oil and water do not mix well. The poet is “heavy and thoughtful” with the thought of death. While deep in thought, she is “drooling at the mouth-hole.”

Stanza 6 Lines 16-18

“I did not think of my body at needle point.

Even the cornea and the leftover urine were gone.   

Suicides have already betrayed the body.”

In this stanza, the speaker expresses the deplorable condition of her body suffering from bipolar disorder and the aftereffects of drugs she has been using. She was addicted to sleeping pills after the birth of her children. She presents deplorable imagery of her body with the cornea and “leftover urine gone”. Her suicide attempts have ruined her body.

Stanza 7 Lines 19-21

“Still-born, they don’t always die,

but dazzled, they can’t forget a drug so sweet   

that even children would look on and smile.”

In this stanza, the poet depicts her failed suicidal attempts as stillborn. She compares the thought of suicide to an addictive drug that even children would look at and smile at. The idea of suicide as a “still-born” baby screams the awful entrapment of a soul in a body that wants to die.

Stanza 8 Lines 22-24

“To thrust all that life under your tongue!—

that, all by itself, becomes a passion.   

Death’s a sad bone; bruised, you’d say,”

The speaker compares suicide attempts with “life” which is on the brink of destruction.

To take one’s life under one’s tongue “becomes a passion.” It was something she spent a great deal of time thinking about and was consumed by.  The poet refers to death as a woman, that’s bruised.

Stanza 9 Lines 25-27

“and yet she waits for me, year after year,   

to so delicately undo an old wound,   

to empty my breath from its bad prison.”

The poet continues the personification of death and says that she waits for the poet year after year to “empty” her breath and free her from imprisonment, her bad, ruined body. Death is there, reading to “undo an old wound.” 

Stanza 10 Lines 28-30

“Balanced there, suicides sometimes meet,

raging at the fruit a pumped-up moon,   

leaving the bread they mistook for a kiss,”

The poet says that when life is  “balanced there” between life and death, it reveals itself to be a kind of suffering that only suicides can recognize, and heal.

Stanza 11 Lines 30-33

“leaving the page of the book carelessly open,

something unsaid, the phone off the hook

and the love whatever it was, an infection.”

In the final stanza, the poet says that death leaves everything unsaid, pages of book carelessly left open and the phone is “off the hook”, and compares the love for life to an infection. Everything in the stanza screams of death and absence, symbolizing the end of life.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Comedy of Errors by William Shakespeare | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘The Comedy of Errors is one of William Shakespeare's early plays, probably written in the early 1590s. It is a Five-Act play, though it is the shortest play by Shakespeare. It is a farcical comedy. A farcical comedy or a Farce is a comedy that seeks to entertain an audience through highly exaggerated, extravagant, ridiculous, absurd, and improbable situations.

Shakespeare was criticized for not maintaining the classical ‘Unities’ of Time, Place, and Action in his plays. However, Comedy of Errors is one of his few plays in which he maintained all three Aristotelian unities. The unity of place dictates that the play should happen in a single location (in this case, Ephesus); the unity of time dictates that the play should take place over no more than 24 hours (this play occurs all in one day); and the unity of action dictates that the play should focus on one main plot action (in this case, the confusion of Antipholus of Ephesus and Antipholus of Syracuse). The importance of family and marriage is one of the play's main themes. Mistaken identity and similar appearances are another major theme. The play shows the folly of making assumptions based on someone’s appearance. 

Characters of Comedy of Errors:

Antipholus of Ephesus and Antipholus of Syracuse are the two protagonists, identical twins who were lost during their childhood. When Antipholus of Syracuse arrives in Ephesus, the townspeople confuse him with his twin brother. He dines with his brother's wife Adriana and later is reunited with Egeon. Antipholus of Ephesus is married to Adriana. He initially has the golden necklace made for his wife and is later locked out of his house when his twin brother arrives.

Aegon is the father of Antipholus of Syracuse and his twin. He is a merchant from Syracuse who reaches Ephesus in search of his lost son but gets arrested because a law forbids merchants from Syracuse from entering Ephesus. He is condemned to die if he cannot provide one thousand marks as bond money. Dromio of Ephesus is a servant of Antipholus of Ephesus and the identical twin of Dromio of Syracuse who in turn is a servant of Antipholus of Syracuse. Adriana is the wife of Antipholus of Ephesus, she mistakenly brings Antipholus of Syracuse into her house and locks out her real husband. Luciana is Adriana’s sister with whom Antipholus of Syracuse falls in love. Angelo is a goldsmith of Ephesus who makes a necklace for Adriana at Antipholus of Ephesus' request. He delivers the necklace to Antipholus of Syracuse while expecting payment from Antipholus of Ephesus. Doctor Pinch is a schoolmaster and exorcist, he is asked to drive the demons out of Antipholus of Ephesus whom Adriana thinks is mad. Emilia is the mother of Antipholus of Ephesus and Syracuse who becomes an abbess after losing her husband and a son. Solinus is the Duke of Ephesus who feels sorry for Aegon of Syracuse and offers him time to pay his bond money. Nell is Adriana’s servant and Dromio of Ephesus’s wife.

Summary of Comedy of Errors:

The play is set in Ephesus, an old Greek city.

Act 1

The play begins as Solinus, the Duke of Ephesus enters his court to listen to the case of Aegon, a merchant from Syracuse. Recently both cities have passed laws which put any man from the rival city to death unless he can raise a ransom of one thousand marks, a sum which Egeon cannot afford. Despite the rivalry between the two cities, the Duke of Ephesus is kind-hearted. He asks Aegon why he chose to enter Ephesus. Aegon tells him that he has come to Syracuse in search of his wife and one of his twin sons, who were separated from him 25 years ago in a shipwreck. The other twin, who grew up with Egeon, is also traveling the world in search of the missing half of their family. Years ago he and his wife went to Epidamnum. While there, his wife bore twin sons, so alike that they could only be distinguished by their names. A poor woman in the same inn also had twins. She was crying that she couldn’t afford to raise her sons, so Egeon purchased them to be servants for his two sons.

After they left to return home, they were caught in a storm and forced to tie themselves to their ship. Just before they could be rescued, they hit a rock and the ship broke in two, separating Egeon from his wife Emilia, one of his sons, and one of the servant twins. When he grew old, the remaining twin inquired about his brother, and Egeon spent five years traveling the Greek islands searching for him before ending up in Ephesus. The Duke is so moved by this story that he grants Egeon a day to raise the thousand-mark ransom that would be necessary to save his life.

In the same city, Antipholus of Syracuse arrives with his servant Dromino of Syracuse and they encounter a merchant who warns them that they must pretend to be from a city other than Syracuse since a merchant from there was arrested only that morning. Antipholus and Dromino arrived at Ephesus in search of their lost twin brothers. Antipholus sends Dromio with some money to arrange a hotel for the night. After some time, Dromino of Ephesus arrives at the same place while searching for Antipholus of Ephesus. When Antipholus of Syracuse sees him, he asks if he has arranged for the hotel and demands the remaining money back. Dromio of Ephesus gets confused and tells Antipholus to hurry home to dinner before his wife beats them both. Antipholus of Syracuse gets angry, believing that Dromino has stolen his money, and beats him. Dromio of Ephesus runs away.

Act 2

At home, Adriana is waiting for her husband, Antipholus of Ephesus. She is upset that her husband often remains away from home. She tells her sister Luciana to marry so that Luciana will have more power, rather than being a servant to her. Dromio of Ephesus arrives and informs how strangely Antipholus of Ephesus behaved and says he was beaten by him. Adriana asks him to go again and bring Antipholus. Dromino protests but Adriana begins beating her and he is forced to go back to fetch Antipholus. Adriana tells Luciana that she believes Antipholus is seeing some other woman and he has abandoned her.

Dromio of Syracuse returns to Antipholus of Syracuse. Antipholus asks him why he ran away. Domino of Syracuse gets confused and thinks that his master is playing some trick. He informs that he has arranged Centaur Inn for the night. As they move towards the Centaur Inn, they encounter Andriana and Luciana. Adriana chastises Antipholus, who she thinks is her husband, for claiming not to know her. She expresses her pain at being cheated on and reasons that if she slept with someone else, he would be furious. She says that she is contaminated by his “contagion” of adultery. Antipholus is confused and says that he has just arrived in Ephesus and does not know her.
Luciana scolds Antipholus and says that Adriana had sent Dromio to fetch him for dinner. Antipholus asks Dromio if this is true, and Dromio says he has never seen Luciana or Adriana before. Antipholus calls him a liar, thinking of Dromio of Ephesus, who did bring the message to him earlier. Adriana and Luciana take them to their home. Adriana orders Dromio to guard the door, while she and Antipholus enter the house and eat dinner together.

Act 3

Dromino of Ephesus meets Antipholus of Ephesus and complains of his ill-treatment to his master, who does not know what he is talking about and thinks Dromio is a fool. They meet Angelo, the goldsmith and Antipholus asks him to make a gold necklace for his wife Adriana. They meet another merchant of Balthazar whom Antipholus invites to his home for dinner.

When Antipholus, Dromio, Angelo, and the merchant of Balthazar reach home, they encounter Dromino of Syracuse at the gate. Dromio of Syracuse refuses to let them enter. Antipholus gets confused as he sees another Dromino at the gate of his home. He asks who is he to which Dromio of Syracuse says his name is Dromio. Dromio of Ephesus thinks he has stolen his identity. A servant from within the house named Luce comes to the door and Dromio of Ephesus demands to be let in. She refuses, and Antipholus of Ephesus threatens to knock the door down. Disturbed by the commotion,  Adriana comes to the door from inside and asks who is outside. Antipholus of Ephesus calls her his wife, and Adriana is shocked, telling this man whom she thinks is a stranger (because Antipholus of Syracuse is inside the house already) to leave. Antipholus is ready to break down the door and tells Dromio of Ephesus to get “an iron crow” for this purpose. The merchant of Balthazar advises him not to do so. Antipholus of Ephesus orders the goldsmith to deliver the golden necklace soon so that he may present it to some other woman to spite his wife.

Inside the house, Luciana complains to Antipholus about how he treats her sister. She tells him to stop looking at other women and to start comforting his wife.

Antipholus replies that he knows no wife, but that he finds Luciana to be quite beautiful and lovely. She is shocked by his suggestive nature and thinks that he has gone mad. She then tells him to wait while she goes to fetch her sister. Dromio of Syracuse rushes in and complains that a strange fat woman is claiming she is his wife. Antipholus feels it is a strange city where women capture men to claim them as their husbands and asks Dromino to go to the harbor and find out if any ships are sailing away from Ephesus that night. After some time, Angelo arrives and gives the golden necklace to Antipholus of Syracuse who fails to understand why he is giving the necklace to him but takes it. Antipholus then decides to follow Dromino to find a ship and go away from the strange city as soon as possible.

Act 4

A merchant asks Angelo to give the money back that he took as a loan. Angelo says that he is expecting payment from Antipholus soon and then he will pay him back. Antipholus of Ephesus arrives with Dromino of Ephesus and Angelo asks money for the golden chain. Antipholus says that he doesn’t have money at the moment and tells Angelo to deliver the gold chain to Adriana at his house who will give him the money. Angelo gets confused and says that he already delivered the necklace to Antipholus which Antipholus denies. They begin arguing and the other merchant calls a police officer. Angelo complains against Antipholus of Ephesus and he gets arrested.

Drominus of Syracuse finds Antipholus of Ephesus at the hail and tells him that he has found a ship that will leave Ephesus soon. Antipholus fails to understand and asks Dromino to go to Adriana and have her send bail money to get him out of jail. Dromio is hesitant to go back to Adriana’s house, where Nell is, but reluctantly obeys him.

At home, Luciana informs Adriana that Antipholus tried to seduce her. Adriana abuses Antipholus calling him bad names. Dromio of Syracuse arrives and tells them that Antipholus has been arrested and that he requires money to be set free. Adriana gives him the money and sends him off again, but is now more worried than ever before about her husband.

Dromio of Syracuse returns but finds Antipholus of Syracuse with the golden necklace and delivers the money to him. A beautiful courtesan arrives and sees the necklace with Antipholus. Antipholus of Ephesus had promised to give the necklace to her to spite his wife. She asks for the golden necklace but Antipholus of Syracuse refuses to give it. Angered, the courtesan threatens that she will complain to his wife.

Antipholus of Ephesus is still in jail where Dromio of Ephesus arrives. Antipholus asks him the money for his bail but Dromio denies having any money. Antipholus begins beating him but the jailer restricts him from doing so. Adriana and Luciana arrive with Doctor Pinch, an exorcist to bail Antipholus out. They ask Doctor Pinch to treat Antipholus and bring him back to his mind. Adriana says that she gave the money for bail to Dromio but Dromio denies it. Doctor Pinch says that both men are suffering madness and must be treated.

Adriana and Luciana decide to go talk to the goldsmith about the debt that Antipholus owes to him. The Courtesan also shows up and tells Adriana about the ring her husband took in return for a golden necklace that he promised to give. They all go to the house of Angelo the goldsmith where they see Antipholus and Dromino of Syracuse. Adriana and the jailer are surprised and wonder how quickly Antipholus and Dromino broke and escaped the jail.

Act 5

Angelo sees the golden necklace in Antipholus of Syracuse’s neck and asks him a liar. He demands payment for the necklace. Antipholus challenges him for a duel. Adriana intervenes and begs Angelo to forgive Antipholus as he is mad. Dromio urges his master to run before they get caught and bound, at which point they run into the priory, where the Abbess lives.

All others follow them. The Abbess is disturbed by the commotion and comes out. She asks why so many people have gathered at the priory. Adriana tells her that Antipholus has become mad. She then tells the Abbess that she thinks Antipholus is also looking at other women, to which the Abbess replies that Adriana should have rebuked him more often. Adriana then demands that she be allowed to fetch her husband, but the Abbess does not allow her to enter.

Adriana and Luciana are upset by the Abbess’s treatment and decide to go to the Duke to complain about her. The Duke of Ephesus arrives there with Aegon and the executioner. Adriana complains to him about his husband who is inside the priory while the abbess isn’t allowing her to meet him. The Duke calls for abbess but she doesn’t come out.

Antipholus of Ephesus arrives with Dromio of Ephesus complains about how badly Adriana has treated them, and asks the Duke to allow him to take revenge. Aegon recognizes his son but doesn’t say a thing. The Duke calls for the abbess again. Aegon tries to talk to Antipholus of Ephesus who doesn’t recognize him. Aegon gets confused and tries to remind Antipholus that he is his father. The Abbess arrives with Antipholus of Syracuse and his servant Dromio, both of whom immediately recognize Egeon and call out to him. The Abbess then reveals that she is Emilia, Egeon's wife who was separated from him when their ship broke apart on the rocks. Soon the entire story is revealed to the Duke, who then pardons Egeon. All exit into the abbey to celebrate the reunion of the family.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Literary Theory Made Easy | Understanding Literary Theory

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The purpose of this video is to understand Literary Theory and its applications. Literary theory is a collection of ideas and methods we use to interpret and understand literature.

It's like a set of tools that helps us look at a text from different angles and uncover deeper meanings. These theories can come from various sources, including the text, historical context, and personal experiences.   Now, ‘us’ here means, us, the common readers. Thus, literary theory is a means for the common, novice readers to understand a text of literature in a better, deeper manner. Literary theory is a fascinating field that examines how we interpret and understand literature. It's not just about analyzing texts; it's about understanding the context, assumptions, and perspectives that shape our reading experience. Think of it as a set of lenses that help us see literature in new and insightful ways. Literary Theory focuses on the underlying principles of literature, language, and interpretation. It provides a broad perspective on literature and helps readers understand the relationship between the author and their work. Literary theory can also help readers learn more about the intentions of different authors. It should be noted that Literary theory is not a rigid set of rules, but rather a flexible framework that can be adapted to suit different texts and contexts. By understanding the different schools of literary theory, we can become more informed and engaged readers. However, readers, generally do not put much effort into literary works. They either like it or dislike it but they do not analyze it. That work is done by Literary theorists who perform the philosophical, moral, and contextual dissection and analysis of the work and then offer their ideas and opinions about the literature.

Literary Criticism

Another closely related term is Literary Criticism. The very first thing is that ‘criticism’ here does not mean pointing out the bad things about a text. Rather, it is an act of analyzing, the act of describing the good and bad points, strengths, and weaknesses of a play, book, poem, etc. Literary Criticism focuses on the analysis of specific works of literature. It involves interpreting the meaning of a work and explaining its relevance and importance to readers. Literary criticism can also help readers understand a work's position in cultural history. We can say that Literary criticism is a kind of expert advice about a work of literature. It helps the reader to understand the piece of literature they are about to read in a better manner. Literary theorists and literary critics often reinforce each other's work. For example, literary theorists might use literary texts as examples to develop their theories, while literary critics might use a theoretical perspective to better understand a text. 

Is Literary Criticism a Tool for Literary Theory:

We can say that literary criticism is a tool for literary theory.  

The key difference between literary theory and literary criticism is the difference between the scales and scope of the two. Literary criticism analyzes specific works of literature, while literary theory is concerned with literature on a philosophical level. Literary theory is used to support literary criticism, and literary criticism can influence literary theory. Some critics consider literary criticism a practical application of literary theory. Literary theory provides a broader philosophical framework for how to analyze literature. 

Literary criticism is the practice of studying, evaluating, and interpreting works of literature. We can say that Literary criticism denotes action and a literary theory denotes abstract, an idea, a set of rules.  Literary theory consists of the many academic, philosophical, and political frameworks that literary critics can use to critique literature. These academic, philosophical, and political frameworks are the lenses that I mentioned before that a literary critic may use to analyze a particular piece of literature. However, as literary theory is flexible, a competent critic may develop a wholly new perspective, and a new lens to analyze a piece of literature.

Origins of Literary Theory and Literary Criticism:

Another term for literary theory is Hermeneutics. The term comes from Aristotle’s work "Peri Hermeneias" which is one of the earliest (c. 360 BCE) extant philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit, and formal way. However, the concept of literary theory can be much older. We have Vedic Hermeneutics or Mimamsa of Sanskrit literature of the Vedic era.

Important Schools of Literary Theory, or Prominent Types of Literary Criticism

Literary theory enables a broad appreciation of global literature. Reading a text through the lens of literary theory provides a new perspective to better understand literature, learn more about different authors' intentions, and generally improve the quality of literature for both authors and readers. Literary theory can also influence literature, challenging texts to evolve into new territory.

There are many different schools or sections of literary theory that offer different perspectives for a reader to analyze and understand a given piece of literature. Some of the prominent schools of literary theories are-

1) Practical criticism: Practical criticism is a significant approach within literary theory that focuses on the close analysis of texts, emphasizing the reader's response to literature rather than the author's intentions or historical context. It emerged in the 1920s, primarily through the work of I.A. Richards, who conducted experiments with his students to evaluate their interpretations of poetry without any prior knowledge of the authors or contexts.

2) Cultural studies: Cultural studies is a dynamic field within literary theory that examines how cultural practices and texts are intertwined with social power structures. Cultural critics believe a text should be read entirely through the lens of the text's cultural context. Cultural studies often critique traditional literary analysis or the old school for its focus on the text in isolation. Instead, it advocates for a broader understanding that includes the cultural and historical contexts surrounding the text.

3) Formalism: Formalism is a significant school of literary criticism and theory that emerged in the early 20th century, primarily associated with Russian literary critics. It emphasizes the structural elements of a text, focusing on its form, style, and techniques rather than its social context or the author's intentions.

4) Reader-response: Reader-response theory, a significant school of literary theory, shifts the focus from the text to the reader's interpretation. It emphasizes the reader's active role in creating meaning, rather than passively receiving it from the author.

5) The new criticism: New critics focused on examining the formal and structural elements of literature, as opposed to the emotional or moral elements. Poet T.S. Eliot and critics Cleanth Brooks and John Crowe Ransom pioneered the school of new criticism.

6) Psychoanalytic criticism: Psychoanalytic criticism applies the theories of psychoanalysis, primarily those of Sigmund Freud, to the interpretation of literature. It delves into the unconscious mind of both the author and the characters, exploring the hidden desires, fears, and motivations that drive their actions and words.

7) Marxist literary criticism: It is a method of analysis that examines literature through the lens of class, economics, and social structures. It draws on the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who argued that society is fundamentally divided into classes: the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class).

8) Postmodern literary theory: is a broad and complex field that emerged in the late 20th century, challenging traditional notions of meaning, truth, and reality. It is characterized by its playful, self-referential, and often ironic approach to literature. The school includes practices of Metafiction, Unreliable narration, Fragmentation, Absurdism and Irony, Skepticism, Intertextuality, and Cultural Critique.

9) Post-structuralism: It is opposite to formalism or structuralism that questions any assumed “universal truths” as reliant on the social structure that influenced them. Roland Barthes—the father of semiotics, or the study of signs and symbols in art is considered one of the pioneers of post-structuralism.

10) Deconstruction: is a method of analysis that challenges the traditional notion of a fixed meaning within a text. It argues that language is inherently unstable and that any attempt to pin down a single, definitive interpretation is futile. The idea was proposed by Jacques Derrida.  

11) Postcolonial theory: It challenges the dominance of Western thought in literature, examining the impacts of colonialism in critical theory. Edward Said's book Orientalism is a foundational text of postcolonial theory.

12) Feminist literary criticism: It is a critical approach that examines literature through the lens of feminist theory and the politics of feminism. It seeks to understand how literature reflects, reinforces, or challenges the roles and representations of women in society.

13) Queer theory: Queer theory followed feminist theory by further interrogating gender roles in literary studies, particularly through the lens of sexual orientation and gender identity.

14) Critical Race Theory: or CRT, when applied to literary theory, provides a framework for analyzing how race and racism are represented and perpetuated in literature. It examines how texts reflect and reinforce systemic racism, power imbalances, and social inequalities.

15) Critical Disability Theory: It examines disability not merely as a medical or individual issue but as a cultural, historical, social, and political phenomenon. This approach challenges traditional notions of disability and "normal" bodies, emphasizing the social constructs surrounding disability.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss various schools of Literary Theories and Literary Criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and regards!

The Solitary Reaper by William Wordsworth | Summary, Analysis, Explanation

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘The Solitary Reaper’ is a poem by William Wordsworth written in 1805 and published in 1807 in his poetry collection Poems: In Two Volumes. It is considered one of his best-known works. The poem was inspired by Wordsworth’s trip to Scotland in 1803 with his sister Dorothy Wordsworth. Another inspiration was his friend and author Thomas Wilkinson’s Tours to the British Mountains, which described a reaper's song in Scottish Gaelic. The passage that inspired Wordsworth is the following: "Passed a female who was reaping alone: she sung in Erse (the Gaelic language of Scotland) as she bent over her sickle; the sweetest human voice I ever heard: her strains were tenderly melancholy, and felt delicious, long after they were heard no more". Thus, this poem is unique for it is not based on the poet’s experience but on his friend’s.

Themes of The Solitary Reaper:

The poem stresses the universality of music. The narrator witnesses an unknown solitary reaper girl working in her field and listens to her song. Though he fails to understand the song, the melody of that song makes it memorable. The poem suggests the ability of art to transcend cultural boundaries and even language itself. The poem also touches on the theme of the limits of poetry and language. The narrator tries everything possible through his poem to describe her song but fails. The poem also contrasts active participation with nature and remaining passive as an observer. The narrator finds the reaper girl and her voice exceptionally beautiful while she continues working in her field and suggests that the beauty she emancipates is that of nature. Being actively involved in her physical labor, she is closer to nature. On the other hand, the narrator, observing the reaper girl is just an observer of nature and not an active part of it.

Structure of The Solitary Reaper:

The poem is a lyrical ballad. The 32 lines of the poem are composed in four Octaves following a consistent pattern. However, there is some variation from the traditional ballad. Ballads follow the common meter with iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter in the alternating lines. Instead of following the common meter, Wordsworth used iambic trimeter in the fourth line of each stanza while all other lines are written in iambic tetrameter. In addition, Wordsworth also used trochees at some places allowing the narrator to have a conversational tone. The rhyming scheme also varies with that of traditional ballads. The first four lines of each octave follow ABAB while the next four lines follow the couplet rhyme of CCDD.

The poet used Apostrophes, Allusion, Enjambment, Caesura, and Alliteration in the poem.

Summary of The Solitary Reaper:

Stanza 1 Lines 1-8

“Behold her, single in the field,

Yon solitary Highland Lass!

Reaping and singing by herself;

Stop here, or gently pass!

Alone she cuts and binds the grain,

And sings a melancholy strain;

O listen! for the Vale profound

Is overflowing with the sound.”

The narrator begins with an apostrophe as he directly addresses the reader. The narrator comes across a beautiful girl (Lass) working alone in the fields of Scotland (the Highland). She is "Reaping and singing by herself." He tells the reader not to interrupt her and then mentions that the valley is full of song. The reaper girl is immersed in her work of cutting and binding while singing a melancholy song while the narrator is so struck by the sad beauty of her song that the whole valley seems to overflow with its sound. The poet used enjambment in lines 1 and 7, while all other lines are end-stopped. The sound of /i/ (assonance) keeps repeating throughout the stanza offering a melody. The narrator creates imagery of green fields in the mountains where a solitary young girl is toiling and drags the reader to cherish her song with the help of an apostrophe.

Stanza 2 Lines 9-16

“No Nightingale did ever chaunt

More welcome notes to weary bands

Of travellers in some shady haunt,

Among Arabian sands:

A voice so thrilling ne'er was heard

In spring-time from the Cuckoo-bird,

Breaking the silence of the seas

Among the farthest Hebrides.”

The narrator then offers a list of things that cannot equal the beauty of the girl's singing. He compares the young woman’s song with ‘Nightingale’ and ‘Cuckoo,’ the birds known for their sweet voices. He asserts that the girl’s song is much sweeter than the sweet songs of any nightingale or cuckoo. He is utterly enchanted that he says that her voice is so thrilling and penetrable like that of the Cuckoo Bird, which sings to break the silence in the ‘Hebrides’ Islands. The Arabian sands and Hebrides Islands symbolize the uniqueness of the girl’s song which cannot be imitated by any nightingale or cuckoo in the vast expanse between Arabia and Scotland (Hebrides mountains). The narrator continues the strongly effective imagery and pulls the reader further into the mesmerizing effect of the reaper girl’s song as if the reader can listen to her now.

Stanza 3 Lines 17-24

“Will no one tell me what she sings?—

Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow

For old, unhappy, far-off things,

And battles long ago:

Or is it some more humble lay,

Familiar matter of to-day?

Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain,

That has been, and may be again?”

The narrator uses Apostrophe again and asks the readers if they can tell him the meaning of the reaper girl’s song. The reader learns that the speaker cannot understand the words being sung. He can only guess at what she might be singing about. The narrator continues the reader in the imagery which appears so lively. He shows his frustration as he fails to understand the Scottish dialect the girl is singing. He notices the ‘plaintive number’ and melancholy strain of the song, the narrator speculates that her song might be about some past sorrow, pain, or loss ‘of old, unhappy things‘ or battles fought long ago. Or perhaps, he says, it is a humbler, simpler song about some present sorrow, pain, or loss, a ‘matter of to-day.’ He wonders if the girl is singing about a loss of the past or something that may happen again.

Stanza 4 Lines 25-32

“Whate'er the theme, the Maiden sang

As if her song could have no ending;

I saw her singing at her work,

And o'er the sickle bending;—

I listened, motionless and still;

And, as I mounted up the hill,

The music in my heart I bore,

Long after it was heard no more.”

In the fourth stanza, the narrator breaks the illusion of the imagery of the present and clarifies that he is not in the valley, watching the girl. Rather, he mentioned an old memory when he heard the song of the solitary Highland Lass. He tells the reader that even though he did not know what she was singing about, the music stayed in his heart as he continued up the hill. He says that when he was there, he tried to understand her song and share her pain but failed. He concluded that whatever she was singing about, it would not end. Even when he left and mounted up the hill he could still hear her voice coming amongst the produce, she was cutting and binding. Though the poet left that place, the song remained in his heart, long after he heard that song. Despite that strong effect, the narrator failed to describe what the song was about thus admitting to the limits of his poetry.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Rich Like Us by Nayantara Sahgal | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Rich Like Us is a novel by Nayantara Sahgal, published in 1985, 10 years after the dreadful period of Emergency in India. In 1986, she received the Sahitya Academy Award for the novel.

Nayantara Sahgal belongs to the Nehru-Pandit family. She is the daughter of Vijaylakshmi Pandir and Barrister Ranjit Pundit. Pundit Jawahar Lal Nehru was her mother’s brother, and Indira Gandhi was her cousin. Despite such close proximity with the ruling family of India during that period, Nayantara Sahgal expressed her opposition to tyranny, political corruption, and Nepotism. In 1974, she was about to be appointed as the Indian ambassador to Italy. But because of her critical views on the Indian government, she lost her job. Nevertheless, she continued to oppose and protest the tyrannical attitude of the government. The novel ‘Rich Like Us’ also depicts a woman standing for righteousness, the rule of law, and justice, and suffering consequences due to political corruption.

The story covers 40 years from the 1930s to the late 1970s during the Emergency in India. The novel is divided into several chapters. Some chapters are narrated by an omniscient third-person narrator, while some are narrated by Sonali, one of the main characters of the novel.

The title ‘Rich Like Us’ is introduced as a question, and continues as such throughout the novel. The novel begins with a British businessman interacting with an Indian couple. He says that all he has been told teaches him that if the poor of India would "do like we do, they’d be rich like us." However, when he sees the poverty in Indian streets, he finds it difficult to believe.

Characters of ‘Rich Like Us’:

Rose is one of the lead characters of the novel. She is an English lady, born in East end London who falls in love with a rich Indian businessman Ram. She belongs to the poor working class of London and unconvincingly tries to hide her Cockney accent from her high-born friends. In the 1930’s when she was a young, quick-witted, intelligent, and romantic girl, she met Ram, an influential rich businessman from India at a chocolate shop in London. They discuss India and Ram compares India with Cythera. According to Greek mythology, the Island of Cythera is the birthplace of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. Rose feels intellectually defeated by Ram and instantly falls in love with Ram and to show her love, she buys an old postcard of Cythera. Ram says that India is wonderful where everyone is loved. Rose decides to marry Ram and comes to India. In India, she comes to know that Ram is already married to an Indian woman named Mona. Mona is a submissive woman, a loyal and obedient wife of Ram. Ram admits that he loves Mona and Rose equally while he also begins a short-term affair with Marcella, another British woman. In India, Rose realizes that reality is far different from what Ram depicted India to be. He faces patriarchal discrimination in India and struggles to find a home in this foreign society filled with ancient customs and norms like Sati, and orthodox rituals. Yet, Ram continues to intellectually dominate her and she continues to love him. She lives in the second story of the big mansion of Ram while Mona and her son Dev live in the first story of the building.

Dev is the son of Ram and Mona who fails to accept his father’s second marriage and believes that Rose will harm his business and inheritance interest. He’s a greedy, spoiled brat of a rich father who wishes to attain everything without actually earning anything. Nisha is Dev’s wife, a modern yet submissive Indian woman.

Sonali Ranade is the other lead character of the novel. She is an upright civil servant in the Ministry of Industry. She has been a rebellious and intelligent student throughout her life. Her father tried to arrange her marriage but she opposed it and ran away to London for higher studies where she got admission to Oxford. She meets Ravi Kachru at Oxford who becomes her close friend. Ravi Kachru is an Indian intellectual who is influenced by Marxism. Ravi tries to dominate Sonali intellectually and they do fall in love but Sonali fails to accept his Marxist ideals. She says, “I did admire his (Ravi’s) commitment…. But I couldn’t understand why we had to keep cutting and pasting Western concepts together and tying ourselves to them forever as if Europe were the center of the Universe, and Marx were the last words on Mankind.” Ravi proves to be a hypocrite who prefers power over his own ideals. In India, Sonali lives with her father, her elder sister Kiran, and Kiran’s husband. Other characters include Bheeku, an old street beggar. Rose keeps helping him, feeding him, and taking care of him.

Summary of Rich Life Us:

The story begins in the 1930s when Ram, an Indian businessman visits London for a business trip. In London, he meets a vivacious, young British girl at a chocolate shop. He learns that she belongs to the British working class because of her accent and grows a friendship with her. During their discussion, he learns her name is Rose. Rose is deeply impressed by Ram’s intellectual prowess and immediately falls in love with him and they decide to marry. Ram convinces Rose to come to India and live with him. In India, Rose comes to know that Ram is already married to an Indian girl and he also has a son named Dev. Dev is a spoiled brat who enjoys the perks of being a son of a successful father. He dislikes Rose because she is critical of him and tries to make him learn the ways of honesty and hard work. Dev is also skeptical of Rose because he believes that Rose overshadowed his mother Mona. He believes that Rose grabbed the rightful place of his own mother. Mona too feels cheated and ignored by her husband and tries to commit suicide. However, Rose saves her and tries to be her friend. Mona and Rose develop a gentle friendship while sharing the same husband but Dev despises this arrangement between his two mothers. Rose realizes that though Ram loves her, he is poly-amorous as Ram begins an affair with Marcella, another British woman who is married to Bryan.

Time passes by and India gets independence. Ram continues to attain business and political success while Dev becomes a young, brutish, and ill-mannered rich businessman with friends in the political section of Delhi. He gets married to Nisha, the daughter of an influential politician.

Rose grows a friendship with Sonali, a young and upright civil servant in the Ministry of Industry who is pitted against the contemporary bureaucratic regime. Sonali heroically fights the malice in the bureaucratic hierarchy which has seeped to the core and corroded the Indian society and its long-cherished values. During her younger days, she was a rebellious student who opposed her father’s bid to marry her to some rich businessman and decided to go to Oxford for higher studies. At Oxford, she met Ravi Kachru, a childhood friend with whom she studied at school. Ravi introduces her to the vast world of intellectuals. It is with him that her political knowledge blossoms. Ravi's ardor for communism deepens, yet Sonali, despite Ravi's efforts, questions its plausibility. Sonali mentions, "I did admire and envy his commitment, it was so cloudless. But I couldn't understand why we had to keep cutting and pasting Western concepts together and tying ourselves to them forever as if Europe were the center of the universe, and the Bible and Marx were the last word on mankind." Sonali discusses communism with Ravi, stating that she doesn’t want to stick to any doctrine. Her motivation is personal: being a woman she has lived too many restrictions to voluntarily have another one in her life. Sonali states ‘I don’t like dictatorships, not even of the proletariat, not even as a passing phase because who knows the phase might get stuck and never pass’.

Despite their differences, they develop a romantic relationship. Yet, Sonali is doubtful if she wishes to marry Ravi. She feels that Ravi is actually bossy, rigid and selfish and if she married him she’d have to agree with him all the time, and thus, they break up.

After their education, when they return to India, Sonali observes sudden changes in Ravi. Ravi involves himself quickly with the ruling party and marries Nishi, the daughter of the Indian Prime Minister’s second cousin. Meanwhile, Sonali becomes a civil servant and joins the department in the Ministry of Industry. She finds it difficult to believe that Ravi, who once supported Marxism so much, defended the autocratic rule in India and supported the call to Emergency in 1975.

Rose is still living with Ram in his house along with Mona, Dev, and Nisha, Dev’s wife. Forty years have passed and now Ram is an old, weak man who suffers a heart attack. Rose continues to nurse and serve him. Dev has grown up to become an indolent young man who has seriously been affected by the unusual double marriage of his father. Now when his father is bedridden he sees the opportunity of forging cheques to get his father’s money on his account. Rose notices the ill-intentions of Dev and learns that her rights as a woman and wife are deteriorating, so she turns to her friend Sonali for help.
Sonali is already grappling with the dominant nature of Dev who is trying his political power to attain a license to open his new venture, a fizzy drink Hapyola factory. With an admirable rare courage, Sonali refuses to grant permission to open the fizzy drink Hapyola factory to Dev the spoilt son of Mona and Ram. She rebels overtly and fearlessly against the bureaucratic setup. Patriotic, committed, and honest that she is Sonali suffers a rude jolt when she gets her transfer order. Instead of receiving appreciation for having done her duty with a sense of patriotism, she is victimized by the bureaucratic system. She is replaced by Ravi Kachru who immediately allows the license to Dev. Sonali suffers the loss and says, “The emergency has ended my career, but suddenly I did not want a career in the crumbling unprofessionalism that bowed and scrapped to a bogus emergency.” Sonali further suffers the wrath of the political establishment as her father, a shopkeeper is imprisoned for no obvious reason. Meanwhile, Dev succeeds in eliminating his other enemy too as Rose is murdered by the goons sent by Dev. Her death leaves Soali depressed. Marcella and Bryan helped her and encouraged her to take up a research project on seventeenth and eighteenth-century India.

Anyhow, the emergency ends, and the political power at the center changes. So does the fortunes of Ravi. He again changes color and tries to adapt to his older ways. However, Sonali believes that his efforts are truthful and comments, “Kachru becoming Ravi again, of friendship resuming, of love having been really love and not a mistake he had been trying to forget.”

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!