Aristotle’s Poetics | Summary, Analysis, Explanation

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Poetics by Aristotle is a foundational work of literary criticism that examines the principles of poetry, particularly tragedy and epic poetry.

While the original text is not explicitly divided into chapters, modern editions often break it down into sections for easier analysis. Researchers believe that the work was composed around 330 BCE and was preserved primarily through Aristotle's students' notes.

While the original text is not explicitly divided into chapters, modern editions often break it down into 26 sections or chapters for easier analysis. 

Summary of Poetics:

In Chapter 1, Aristotle introduces and defines poetry as a form of imitation (mimesis). It can imitate noble actions, people, or events. A poet has three means of imitation at his disposal——rhythm, language, and harmony. He may employ metres too, but the distinguishing merit of a poet is not that he writes in metre, but that it is an imitative nature of his work. He distinguishes between different types of poetry: epic, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and music. He says poetry differs based on the medium, objects, and manner of imitation.

In Chapter 2, Aristotle discusses the Objects of Imitation. He says that Poetry imitates human actions, which can be noble or base. Characters in poetry are either better than, worse than, or similar to real-life people. Tragedy imitates noble actions, while comedy imitates base or ridiculous actions. In Chapter 3, Aristotle discusses the Manner of Imitation. Poetry can imitate through narration, direct action, or a combination of both. Epic poetry uses narration, while drama (tragedy and comedy) uses direct action. The poet may imitate by narration -in which case he can either speak through another personality (which is purely narrative), or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us. This latter type is called drama.

In Chapter 4, he discusses Origins and Development of Poetry. He offers instinctive and psychological origins of poetry and says that Poetry arises from human instincts for imitation and rhythm. He also discusses historical origins of various forms of poetry. Tragedy evolved from improvisations by leaders of dithyrambs (choral hymns), while comedy originated from phallic songs. Tragedy developed over time, with Aeschylus and Sophocles contributing to its structure.

In Chapter 5, Aristotle explores and defines Comedy and Epic Poetry. He says that comedy is an imitation of men “worse than the average” which is not the same thing as bad characters. Comedy imitates inferior characters and focuses on the ridiculous rather than the harmful. He defines Epic Poetry and says that Epic poetry shares similarities with tragedy but differs in length, structure, and meter (epic uses hexameter). Tragedy is more concentrated and unified than epic poetry.

In Chapter 6, he offers Definition and Elements of Tragedy. Tragedy is defined as the imitation of a serious, complete action that evokes pity and fear (catharsis). The six elements of tragedy, in order of importance, are Plot (mythos) – the arrangement of events, Character (ethos) – the moral qualities of the agents, Thought (dianoia) – the reasoning behind characters' actions, Diction (lexis) – the choice of words, Melody (melos) – the musical elements, and Spectacle (opsis) – the visual elements. Aristotle stresses that the Plot is the main element of a tragedy and says, “A tragedy is impossible without action, but there may be one without character.”

In Chapter 7, he discusses the Structure of the Plot. According to his definition, a tragedy is an imitation of a whole action. A good plot must have a beginning, middle, and end. It should be complete, with a logical sequence of events. The plot should be of a reasonable length to allow for a change of fortune.

In Chapter 8, Aristotle stresses the Unity of Action. The plot must have unity of action, meaning all events should be connected and necessary to the story. Episodic plots, where events are not causally linked, are inferior.

In Chapter 9, he discusses Universality and Probability in poetry. Poetry deals with universal truths, while history deals with specific events. He suggests that poetry is better than History. The plot should follow probability or necessity, meaning events should happen logically.

In Chapter 10, Aristotle discusses Simple and Complex Plots. Plots are either simple or complex. A plot is simple when there is neither any unexpected change or reversal of situation nor a sudden discovery. A complex plot includes both Discovery and Reversal. A simple plot has a single, continuous action without a reversal or recognition. A complex plot includes a reversal (peripeteia) and/or recognition (anagnorisis), which are more effective in evoking pity and fear.

In Chapter 11, he further elaborates on Complex Plots and discusses Reversal, Recognition, and Suffering.

Reversal (Peripeteia) refers to a sudden change in the protagonist's fortune, often from good to bad, that is crucial to the plot.

In Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, Oedipus begins the play as a respected king of Thebes, determined to save his city from a plague. However, his investigation into the murder of the former king, Laius, leads to the shocking revelation that he himself is the murderer and that he has unknowingly married his mother, Jocasta. This reversal transforms him from a noble ruler into a tragic figure doomed to exile and suffering.

Recognition (Anagnorisis) is the moment when a character moves from ignorance to knowledge, often revealing a critical truth about their identity or situation.

In Oedipus Rex, the moment of recognition occurs when Oedipus realizes that he is the son of Laius and Jocasta, the king and queen he unknowingly killed and married. This revelation shatters his sense of identity and leads to his tragic downfall.

Suffering (Pathos) refers to a destructive or painful action, such as death, agony, or loss, that evokes pity and fear in the audience. After discovering the truth about his identity, Oedipus blinds himself in a fit of despair and is exiled from Thebes. His physical and emotional suffering is a direct result of his actions and ignorance.

In Chapter 12, Aristotle discusses the Parts of Tragedy. He divides tragedy into quantitative parts: prologue, episode, exode, and choral sections.

In Chapter 13, he describes The Ideal Tragic Hero. The tragic hero should be a person of high standing who is neither wholly good nor wholly evil. The hero's downfall results from a tragic flaw (hamartia) or error in judgment. Aristotle says that the best tragedies evoke pity and fear through the suffering of a relatable hero. In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus's tragic flaw is his hubris (excessive pride) and ignorance. He believes he can outwit fate and avoid the prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother. His determination to uncover the truth, while admirable, blinds him to the possibility that he himself might be the cause of Thebes's suffering. Shakespeare’s Hamlet suffers the tragic flaw of Indecisiveness and overthinking. Macbeth’s tragic flaw is Ambition and susceptibility to manipulation.

In Chapter 14, Aristotle elaborates on Pity and Fear. Pity is evoked for someone who does not deserve their suffering. Fear is evoked when the suffering could happen to anyone. The best plots involve suffering within families, such as murder or betrayal among kin.

In Chapter 15, he discusses Character in Tragedies and says that Characters should be good, appropriate, consistent, and true to life. They should also be consistent in their actions and speech.

In Chapter 16, he describes Types of Recognition (Anagnorisis). Aristotle describes various forms of recognition, such as recognition by signs, through memory, or through reasoning. The best recognition arises naturally from the plot.

In Chapter 17, Aristotle offers some Practical Advice for Poets. Poets should visualize the action as they write. They should outline the plot before adding details and characters. Poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness. Aristotle reminds the poets that the Chorus should be regarded as one of the actors and should not be used for providing mere interludes.

In Chapter 18, he discusses the Complications and Resolutions of a Tragic Plot. The complication (desis) is the part of the plot where the conflict develops. The resolution (lysis) is the part where the conflict is resolved. The resolution should arise naturally from the plot, not through external means like divine intervention (deus ex machina).

In Chapter 19, Aristotle discusses Thought and Diction of a Tragedy. Thought refers to the themes and ideas expressed by the characters. Diction refers to the choice of words and style of language.

In Chapters 20-22, Aristotle discusses Language and Grammar to be used in poetry. He discusses the parts of speech, metaphors, and the importance of clarity in diction and emphasizes the use of appropriate and effective language. Diction should be clear but not mean.

In Chapters 23-24, he elaborates on Epic Poetry. Epic poetry shares many elements with tragedy but is longer and more expansive. It should also have unity of action and focus on a single theme. The plot in epic poetry should be constructed on dramatic principles. There should be a single subject, whole and complete. It should resemble a living animal in all its unity, differing in construction from history, which presents not a single action but a single period. The difference between Epic poetry and Tragedy lies in the scale and the meter, on which they are constructed. In Epic poetry, hexameter is used.

In Chapter 25, Aristotle addresses common Criticism of Poetry and explains how to evaluate a work. He emphasizes that poetry should be judged based on its own rules and goals, not external standards. He elucidates that the meaning of poetic truth as distinguished from the truth of fact. Aristotle emphasizes that the poet presents not facts but his own view of facts. A probable impossibility should be preferred to improbable possibility.

Chapter 26 offers a comparison between Tragedy and Epic Poetry. Tragedy is superior to epic poetry because it is more concentrated, uses more artistic elements (like spectacle and music), and achieves its effect more effectively. Possesses all the epic elements, it may even use the metre used in epic and has the additional advantage in its use of music and spectacle. Moreover, the canvas of tragedy being shorter, it has more concentrated effect; whereas, the bigger canvas and diffusion through a long extent of time, weaken the impression in Epic.

Critical Analysis:

In Poetics, Aristotle focuses almost exclusively on tragedy, giving limited attention to other forms of poetry, such as comedy or lyric poetry. His analysis of comedy, for example, is largely lost, leaving a gap in his theoretical framework. His definition of tragedy as requiring a noble protagonist, a unified plot, and a cathartic effect is seen as overly prescriptive. Many great works of literature, including modern tragedies, do not conform to these rules. Aristotle prioritizes plot (mythos) over character (ethos), arguing that character is secondary to action. This has been criticized for undervaluing the role of complex character development in storytelling. His insistence on the unity of action (a single, coherent plot) has been criticized as limiting. Many great works, such as Shakespeare’s dramas, episodic novels or postmodern narratives, thrive on multiple plotlines and fragmented structures. Aristotle emphasizes that events in a plot must follow probability or necessity. This has been criticized for excluding the role of chance, randomness, or the absurd in literature.

Aristotle wrote the work as a counterargument against Plato’s opposition to poetry and other art forms. According to Plato, poetry is "thrice removed from reality" because it imitates an imitation of the Forms (the ultimate reality), making it a distant and imperfect representation of true knowledge and reality. While Plato criticized mimesis (imitation or arts) as deceptive and inferior, twice removed from reality, Aristotle suggests that man can only imitate, and mimesis is natural, educational, and capable of revealing truth. However, Aristotle maintains that all poetry is imitation (mimesis). This view has been criticized for reducing literature to mere representation, ignoring its creative, expressive, and transformative potential.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss Classical Literary criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Aristotle | Rhetoric and Poetics | Literary Criticism

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Aristotle is considered one of the most important philosophers, thinkers, and polymaths of the Ancient world. He made significant contributions to various fields, including logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, natural science, and rhetoric. His work laid the foundation for much of Western philosophy and science. He was born in the year 384 BC in a wealthy family of Macedonia (North Greece). He traveled to Athens as a student to seek guidance from Plato at his famous school Academy and became his student. After his studies, he became a teacher in the same institute. He began teaching reasoning and debate at the Academy. After some time, he returned to Macedonia and tutored Alexander the Great there. After some years, he returned to Athens where he founded his own school called the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens. He died in the year 322 BC.

Aristotle developed formal logic, particularly the syllogism, which became the cornerstone of logical reasoning for centuries. He explored the nature of being, existence, and reality, introducing concepts like substance, form, and matter. In Nicomachean Ethics, he argued that virtue lies in achieving a balance (the "Golden Mean") and that the purpose of human life is to achieve eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness). In Politics, he analyzed governance and human society, advocating for a mixed government and emphasizing the importance of the middle class. Aristotle studied biology, physics, and astronomy, though many of his scientific ideas were later disproven (e.g., geocentrism). His contribution in literature and literary concepts is immense. He analyzed persuasive communication in Rhetoric and explored literary theory in Poetics, defining tragedy and its components.

In Poetics, Aristotle explored the concept of Aesthetics, a branch of philosophy which deals with the idea of beauty. Aristotle's "Poetics" is one of the earliest and most influential works of literary criticism, written in the 4th century BCE. It focuses primarily on the nature of poetry, drama, and storytelling, with a particular emphasis on tragedy and epic poetry.

Rhetoric by Aristotle

Aristotle's "Rhetoric" is a foundational text in the study of persuasive communication, written in the 4th century BCE. It systematically explores the art of rhetoric, which Aristotle defines as the ability to discern the available means of persuasion in any given situation. The work is divided into three books, each focusing on different aspects of rhetoric.

In Book I, he discusses the role of Rhetoric and defines rhetoric as the counterpart of dialectic, a method of argumentation. While dialectic seeks truth through logical discussion, rhetoric aims to persuade an audience. Some orators are impressively influential. They may not sound logical but they succeed in persuading the listeners. He further classifies Persuasion in three parts: Ethos, which defines the character and credibility of the speaker, Pathos, which suggests the emotional appeal to the audience, and Logos, which consists of the logical argument or reasoning behind the speech or persuasion.

Aristotle offered three Genres of Rhetoric which include Deliberative: Concerned with future actions, often used in political debates, Forensic: Concerned with past actions, typically used in legal settings, and Epideictic: Concerned with praise or blame, often used in ceremonial speeches.

In Book 2, Aristotle emphasizes the importance of understanding the audience's emotions, beliefs, and values to effectively persuade them (Pathos). He provides a detailed analysis of various emotions, such as anger, fear, and pity, and how they can be elicited in an audience. He emphasizes that the speaker's character is crucial for persuasion. Aristotle discusses how a speaker can project wisdom, virtue, and goodwill to gain the audience's trust.

In Book 3, Aristotle discusses Style (Lexis), and Arrangement or Structure (Taxis) or a persuasive speech. He stresses the importance of clarity, appropriateness, and vividness in language. He advises against overly complex or ornate language that might obscure the message.

Major Theories by Aristotle:

Syllogism: The syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning introduced by Aristotle in his work Organon, specifically in the Prior Analytics. It is a logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions (premises) that are asserted or assumed to be true. Aristotle's syllogism is foundational to classical logic and has influenced Western thought for centuries. A syllogism consists of three parts: Major Premise: A general statement, Minor Premise: A specific statement related to the major premise, and Conclusion: The logical outcome derived from the two premises.

An example can be, All humans are mortal. (General statement); Socrates is a human. (Specific statement); Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Logical conclusion). It is an example of Categorical Syllogism. The other two types are Hypothetical Syllogism: Involves "if-then" statements, and Disjunctive Syllogism: Involves "either-or" statements. (Either it is day or it is night; it is not day, therefore, it is night.)

Idea of Causality: Aristotle's theory of causality is a central aspect of his philosophy, particularly in his works Physics and Metaphysics. He proposed that understanding why things happen requires identifying their causes. Aristotle introduced the concept of the "four causes" (Greek: aitiai) to explain the reasons or principles behind the existence and nature of things. These four causes provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing the factors that contribute to an object's being or an event's occurrence. The first cause is Material Cause; this refers to the physical substance or matter from which something is made (The material cause of a statue is the bronze used to create it). Formal Cause is the form, pattern, or essence of something—its defining characteristics or structure (the formal cause of a statue is the design or blueprint that shapes the bronze into a specific figure). Efficient Cause is the agent or process that brings something into being—the "maker" or "doer" (the efficient cause of a statue is the sculptor who carves it.) Final Cause is the purpose, goal, or end (telos) for which something exists or occurs (the final cause of a statue is to serve as a work of art or to honor a deity). During the Scientific Revolution, thinkers like Francis Bacon and René Descartes criticized Aristotle's focus on final causes, advocating instead for a mechanistic view of nature based on efficient causes.

The Golden Mean: Aristotle's concept of the Golden Mean is a central idea in his ethical philosophy, particularly outlined in his work Nicomachean Ethics. It represents the ideal middle ground between two extremes of behavior—excess and deficiency. According to Aristotle, virtue lies in finding this balance, which allows individuals to achieve eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness), the ultimate goal of human life.

Aristotle on Poetry:

Aristotle and Plato had fundamentally different views on poetry, reflecting their broader philosophical differences. While Plato was highly critical of poetry, Aristotle defended it as a valuable and meaningful art form. Their contrasting perspectives can be understood through their respective works: Plato's Republic (particularly Book X) and Aristotle's Poetics.

Mimesis (Imitation versus Creative Imitation)

Plato argued that poetry is a form of mimesis (imitation), which is twice removed from reality. According to his theory of Forms, the physical world is an imperfect copy of the eternal, unchanging Forms. Poetry, in turn, imitates the physical world, making it an imitation of an imitation. Unlike Plato, Aristotle saw mimesis (imitation) as a natural and innate human tendency. He argued that imitation is a way of learning and understanding the world. Poetry, as a form of mimesis, can reveal universal truths about human nature and experience, even if it is not literally true.

Catharsis:

Plato believed that poetry appeals to the emotions rather than reason, which can corrupt the soul. He argued that it stirs up irrational passions, such as grief, fear, or anger, and undermines self-control and rationality. In Republic, he famously banishes poets from his ideal city, fearing their influence on the guardians and citizens. Aristotle introduced the concept of catharsis (purgation or purification) to describe the emotional effect of tragedy. He believed that tragedy, through its depiction of suffering and conflict, allows audiences to experience and release emotions like pity and fear in a controlled and healthy way. This process, he argued, is psychologically beneficial and contributes to moral and emotional balance. Aristotle analyzed poetry (especially tragedy) in terms of its formal elements, such as plot (mythos), character (ethos), and thought (dianoia). He emphasized the importance of a well-constructed plot with a beginning, middle, and end. He saw poetry as a skilled craft that requires careful attention to structure and technique.

Universal Truth: Plato criticized poets for lacking true knowledge. He believed they create works based on appearances rather than truth, misleading their audiences. Aristotle argued that poetry is more philosophical than history because it deals with universal truths rather than specific events. While history recounts what has happened, poetry explores what could happen, making it a more profound and insightful art form. Plato criticized poetry for its potential to corrupt moral character. Aristotle defended poetry as a means of exploring universal truths and human nature. He valued poetry as an art form with intellectual and emotional benefits.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss Literary criticism and literary critics. Please stay connected with the discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Carpe Diem: Embracing Life in Literature | Literary Terms and Devices

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. "Carpe Diem" is a Latin phrase that translates to "seize the day" in English. As a literary term, it refers to a theme or motif that encourages individuals to make the most of the present moment, often emphasizing the fleeting nature of time and the inevitability of death. This concept has been widely explored in literature, particularly poetry, where it serves as a call to action to live life to its fullest and not to postpone happiness or fulfillment.

Origins and Historical Context:

The phrase originates from the Roman poet Horace's Odes (Book 1, Poem 11), where he writes:

"Carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero."
("Seize the day, trusting as little as possible in the future.")

Horace's advice reflects the philosophy of Epicureanism, which advocates for enjoying life's pleasures while one can, as the future is uncertain. The major theme of Carpe Diem literature is to highlight the ‘fleeting nature of life.’ Many works highlight how quickly time passes and the importance of living fully in the moment. In addition, the idea of Carpe Diem is also found in love poetry, where the urgency of seizing the day is linked to love, desires, and romantic encounters.

Carpe Diem in Literature

The theme has been a recurring motif in various literary movements and works:

1. Renaissance Poetry:

   In English literature, the concept became prominent during the Renaissance. Poets like Robert Herrick and Andrew Marvell used it to urge readers to embrace life and love before time runs out.

   In Marvell's "To His Coy Mistress," the speaker argues that they should act on their love now because "Time's winged chariot hurrying near" suggests that life is short. This poem urges the beloved to embrace love and passion without delay.

   Robert Herrick's "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time" is a classic example that encourages young women to marry while they are still young and beautiful.

"Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,
Old Time is still a-flying;
And this same flower that smiles today
Tomorrow will be dying."

2. Romanticism

Romantic poets like William Wordsworth and John Keats often explored the beauty of the present moment and the urgency of experiencing life deeply. Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn" reflects on the tension between eternal beauty and the fleeting nature of human life.

The "Carpe Diem" theme resonates in contemporary literature and popular culture, often serving as a reminder to prioritize experiences and relationships over material concerns. The phrase has transcended literature, influencing various aspects of life, including philosophy, self-help, and even motivational speaking. In Walt Whitman’s "Leaves of Grass", Whitman celebrates the present moment and the beauty of existence, urging readers to embrace life fully. As a literary term, "Carpe Diem" encapsulates a timeless and universal message about the importance of living in the moment. It resonates across cultures and eras, reminding readers of the transient nature of life and the value of making the most of the time we have.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss literary terms and devices. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Ariel by Sylvia Plath | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. "Ariel" is a collection of poems by Sylvia Plath, published posthumously in 1965. The title poem, "Ariel," is one of Plath's most famous works and is often interpreted as a powerful expression of transformation and liberation. The poem captures a moment of intense, almost ecstatic experience, as the speaker rides a horse named Ariel at dawn. The imagery is vivid and intense, with a sense of speed, freedom, and a merging with nature. The poem is known for its intense imagery and emotional depth, reflecting Plath's own struggles and her quest for identity and self-expression. The title "Ariel" has multiple connotations, including the name of the horse, the spirit Ariel from Shakespeare's "The Tempest," and the Hebrew word for "lion of God."

Plath's work often explores themes of death, rebirth, and the complexities of the self, and "Ariel" is no exception. The collection as a whole is considered one of her most significant contributions to literature, showcasing her unique voice and her mastery of poetic form. It should be noted that Sylvia Plath had a pet horse named Ariel. In this free verse poem, a speaker sheds her inner burdens on a morning horseback ride, becoming one with the natural force she feels in her horse and the landscape. The speaker's liberating but dangerous ride has often been read as a metaphor for writing, female empowerment, and/or psychological instability.

Structure of Ariel:

The poem is written in free verse, meaning it does not follow a strict rhyme scheme or meter. Instead, its structure is defined by its staccato lines, fragmented imagery, and rapid, breathless pace, which mirror the speaker's experience of riding a horse and the emotional and psychological transformation that accompanies it. The poem follows no strict order, but one can divide it into eleven stanzas. The first ten stanzas contain ten tercets (containing 3 lines each) while the last stanza contains a single line. This sudden change from the established form calls attention to the poem's conclusion—a conclusion that suggests both a gloriously violent ending and a new beginning. While the poem is not explicitly divided into sections, it can be seen as having a three-part structure. The poem begins in stillness ("Stasis in darkness") and quickly moves into motion, symbolizing a shift from inertia to action. In the second part, the speaker describes a merging with the horse and the natural world, suggesting a loss of self and a transcendence of boundaries.  The poem culminates in a moment of ecstatic, almost suicidal intensity, as the speaker becomes "the arrow" flying into the "cauldron of morning." The poet has used metaphor, simile, symbolism, imagery, alliteration, enjambment, juxtaposition, and repetition in the poem.

Summary of Ariel:

Lines 1-3

“Stasis in darkness.
Then the substanceless blue
Pour of tor and distances.”

The speaker describes her surroundings in the beginning lines. It is early morning and the darkness of night still lingers. As she looks into distance, she sees a “substanceless blue / Pour of tor and distances.” The craggy "tor[s]" (or rocky hills) seem to have become misty and immaterial, able to “pour” out in front of her. The imagery here suggests a blurry, dreamlike scene, and gives the impression that the speaker and the horse have moved from "stasis" to a rapid gallop. They were static a moment before, but now the horse is moving at a lightning speed. It should be noted that the speaker hasn’t mentioned a horse yet, but the imagery suggests rapid movement and the poem is about Ariel, the horse which may also allude to the spirit Ariel from Shakespeare’s The Tempest, or the biblical lion of God. The poem depicts a woman riding her horse in the countryside, at the very break of dawn. It details the ecstasy and personal transformation that occurs through the experience. The poet has used juxtaposition in the first stanza, expressing stasis and rapid movement in quick succession.

Lines 4-6

“God’s lioness,   

How one we grow,

Pivot of heels and knees!—The furrow”

The speaker describes the horse as ‘God’s lioness’, suggesting the strength and power of the horse; she is a fearful being. The horse is moving swiftly and the speaker is only able to see flashes of the horse’s movements. She sees the fast “Pivot of heels and knees!” And how Ariel propels her forward, deftly navigating the terrain. 

Lines 7-9

“Splits and passes, sister to   

The brown arc

Of the neck I cannot catch,”

The speaker compares the ‘furrow’ or the foot marks made by the horse on the ground as she runs swiftly to the brown arc (or the horse’s swiftly moving neck). They are like sisters moving together. The speaker also expresses her bewilderment as she finds it difficult to keep a hold on the ‘brown’ neck of the horse. The speaker feels as if she is losing the little control she had over the situation.

Lines 10-12

“Nigger-eye   

Berries cast dark   

Hooks—“

In these lines, the speaker suggests that darkness is diminishing. The horse is taking the speaker away from the darkness. Her mind is still affected by the darkness and its fear as she describes the dark ‘berries’ casting ‘hooks’ into her.

Lines 13-15

“Black sweet blood mouthfuls,   

Shadows.

Something else”

The speaker describes the black berries as ‘black sweet blood mouthfuls,’ offering a sense of dread and danger, as if something sinister is about to happen. This feeling matches with the fact that the speaker is riding a horse that is galloping swiftly, and she has little control over the horse. She sees ‘shadows’ and more flashes as she rides, and there is “Something else.” 

Lines 16-18

“Hauls me through air—

Thighs, hair;

Flakes from my heels.”

That something else is hauling her over the horse as if it is not her choice, she is forced to embark on this chaotic and somewhat terrifying ride on top of Ariel. She describes the power of Ariel as the horse is carrying her wherever it wants. She feels as if her own legs, thighs, hair, are falling like flakes from her heels, as if she is self-transforming into something else.

Lines 19-21

“White

Godiva, I unpeel—

Dead hands, dead stringencies.”

In these lines, the speaker brings contrast by describing herself as ‘white.’ She represents the opposite of darkness, that she has tasted in the dark blue berries. She alludes to herself to Godiva, a historical Anglo-Saxon noblewoman who rode naked on her horse, covered only by her long hair – through the streets of Coventry to gain a remission of the oppressive taxation that her husband, Leofric, imposed on his tenants. By doing so, she proved her loyalty to her husband and her generosity for the tenants. The speaker, amid the ride, can slough off things of no consequence –"dead hands, dead stringencies."  She is shedding the person that she has been and is becoming someone else. 

Lines 22-24

“And now I

Foam to wheat, a glitter of seas.   

The child’s cry”

The speaker views herself as the foam on wheat, as a sparkling of light on the ocean. She discerns a child's cry through a wall, but ignores it. The speaker begins to realize that this ride on Ariel is more than just an accidental brush with disaster; it is a wake-up call, an opportunity to change her way of life. She is changing from “Foam to wheat” and shedding her old self. She is becoming one with the landscape she is flying through. 

Lines 25-27

“Melts in the wall.   

And I

Am the arrow,”

The speaker ignores the child’s cry, her own existence is paramount to her, she is getting rid of her dark past. The child’s cry disappears out of her consciousness; she is part of nature with no need to dwell on the past. Like an arrow, she is speeding away from the darkness that is her past. Now, she is one with Ariel, the horse.

Lines 28-30

“The dew that flies

Suicidal, at one with the drive   

Into the red”

She compares herself to the dew that is quickly vanishing. She describes herself as ‘suicidal’ suggesting that she is ready and willing to forget or kill her past. The speaker, and her horse Ariel are one now, and they know where they are driving. She is no more afraid of the horse, or the ride, or the changes she has to go through, she is one with the horse now and she is confident of her destination. The speaker's suicidal impulse is paired with a sense of unity and purpose, creating a tension between destruction and transcendence.

Line 31

“Eye, the cauldron of morning.”

The speaker can see a new, intense, burning light at the end of her tunnel, and she, Ariel, is heading straight for it. This is where she will find her new life.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of American English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards! 

Sonnet: To the River Otter by Samuel Taylor Coleridge | Structure, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. "To the River Otter" is a sonnet written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, a prominent English poet, literary critic, and philosopher of the Romantic era. The poem reflects Coleridge's deep connection to nature and his nostalgic longing for the landscapes of his youth. The River Otter, located in Devon, England, was personally significant to Coleridge, as it was near his childhood home. The speaker of the poem remains unnamed, but it is assumed that the poet is the speaker himself. In this poem, Coleridge reminisces about his childhood experiences by the River Otter, expressing a yearning to return to the innocence and simplicity of his youth. The imagery of the river, the stones, the willows, and the sand evoke a vivid picture of the natural world that left a lasting impression on him. The poem captures the Romantic ideal of finding solace and inspiration in nature, as well as the bittersweet nature of memory and the passage of time. The poem was possibly written in 1793 and was published in Sonnets from Various Artists in 1796.

Structure of To The River Otter:

Sonnet: To the River Otter is a fourteen line poem in a single stanza containing an Octave and a sestet joined by a volta. It follows traditional Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnet. Coleridge adopted a rhyming scheme of ABBA ABBA for the octave and CDE CDE for the sestet. This division creates a clear separation between the octave, which introduces the theme (nostalgia for childhood and nature), and the sestet, which reflects on and resolves the emotional response to that theme. The volta, or thematic turn, occurs between the octave and the sestet. In this poem, the volta shifts from the vivid description of the river and childhood memories (octave) to the poet's emotional response and longing to relive those moments (sestet). The poem is written in iambic pentameter, a common meter for sonnets. Each line consists of five iambs (an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable), giving the poem a rhythmic and musical quality. Coleridge uses vivid natural imagery (e.g., "wild Streamlet," "willows grey," "bedded sand") to evoke the beauty of the River Otter and its connection to his childhood. The tone is nostalgic and reflective, with a sense of longing for the innocence and joy of youth. Coleridge has used Apostrophe, Personification, Alliteration, Enjambment, Metaphor, and Hyperbole, in the poem.

Summary of Sonnet: To the River Otter:

Lines 1-4

“Dear native Brook! wild Streamlet of the West!
How many various-fated years have past,
What happy and what mournful hours, since last
I skimmed the smooth thin stone along thy breast,”

The speaker begins with an Apostrophe, directly addressing the River Otter, personifying it as a dear friend or companion, which emphasizes his emotional connection to the river. He says that numerous years have passed since he spent his time along the stream and made the lovely childhood memories. Now, he looks back and remembers the sweet memories. He used to walk there, and skim the “smooth thin stone along thy breast.” Here again, the poet uses personification,  comparing the river’s surface to someone’s chest. The river's surface is metaphorically described as a "breast," suggesting tenderness and intimacy. He’s been happy since then, he’s also been sorrowful since then, a statement that represents the broader nature of the long time that has passed. Alliteration has been used in the first line (wild Streamlet of the West) with repetition of ‘w’ sound. In the second line, Enjambment has been used to create a flowing, conversational tone, mirroring the movement of the river and the stream of memories. In the third line, Anaphora has been used with repetition of ‘what.’ He reminisces about the years that have passed since he last skipped stones across its surface, recalling both happy and sorrowful moments from his past.

Lines 5-8

“Numbering its light leaps! yet so deep imprest
Sink the sweet scenes of childhood, that mine eyes
I never shut amid the sunny ray,
But straight with all their tints thy waters rise,”

In these lines, the speaker happily remembers the old times when he used to stroll and watch the stones skip along the river’s surface. It was a good time in his life, marked by the sweetness of childhood. He was filled with youth then, and with all the aspirations a child holds in their mind and heart. The River Otter symbolizes childhood innocence, joy, and the passage of time. It serves as a conduit for the poet's memories and emotions.

Lines 9-4

“Thy crossing plank, thy marge with willows grey,
And bedded sand that veined with various dyes
Gleamed through thy bright transparence! On my way,
Visions of Childhood! oft have ye beguiled
Lone manhood's cares, yet waking fondest sighs:
Ah! that once more I were a careless Child!”

Coleridge describes the vivid and enduring memories of his childhood by the river. He recalls specific details, such as the "crossing plank," the "willows grey," and the "bedded sand" that gleamed through the water. These images are deeply imprinted in his mind, and they rise before his eyes whenever he thinks of the river.

The speaker reflects on how these childhood memories have comforted him in his adult life, often easing his cares and bringing fond sighs. However, the memories also evoke a deep yearning to return to the carefree days of his youth. The poem ends with an emotional exclamation: "Ah! that once more I were a careless Child!"—expressing his longing to relive the innocence and joy of childhood.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Shadow Lines by Amitav Ghosh | Characters, Summary, Analysis

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Amitav Ghosh is a renowned Indian author known for his works of fiction and non-fiction that often explore themes of history, migration, identity, and the environment. Born on July 11, 1956, in Kolkata, India, Ghosh has gained international acclaim for his richly detailed narratives and profound storytelling. He won the 54th Jnanpith award in 2018, India's highest literary honor. Some of his most important works include The Glass Palace (2008), a historical novel that spans several generations and countries, focusing on the impact of colonialism in Burma, India, and Malaysia; The Ibis Trilogy, a series of historical novels set in the 19th century, which include Sea of Poppies (2008), River of Smoke (2011), and Flood of Fire (2015). The series explores the opium trade between India and China and its far-reaching consequences. The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable (2016) is a non-fiction work examining literature and history's role in understanding climate change.

The Shadow Lines (1988) is one of the most successful novels by Amitav Ghosh that delves into the complexities of memory, history, and the partition of India. The novel is set against significant historical events, including the Partition of India in 1947 and the communal riots in Calcutta and Dhaka in the 1960s. The story is narrated by an unnamed protagonist who reflects on his childhood and family history, particularly focusing on his cousin Tridib and their shared experiences. The narrative moves fluidly between different periods and locations, including Calcutta, London, and Dhaka, weaving together personal and collective histories. Ghosh's writing is characterized by its intricate structure and rich, evocative prose. The narrative shifts between different periods and perspectives, creating a mosaic of interconnected stories. This non-linear approach mirrors the fragmented nature of memory and history. The Shadow Lines has been widely acclaimed for its literary merit and depth of insight. It won the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1989 and has been praised for its nuanced portrayal of historical events and their impact on individual lives.

Characters of The Shadow Lines:

The protagonist is an unnamed narrator, a young boy born and raised in Calcutta. He narrates the events of his early life, leaping back and forth in time. He adores his uncle, Tridib, and enjoys his stories about history and foreign places. His journey to understand the past, particularly the death of Tridib, drives much of the narrative. Tridib is the narrator’s uncle. He is a sensitive and worldly person. He is a dreamer and storyteller who profoundly shapes the narrator's worldview. As a child, he lived in London with the Price family while his father received medical care. He develops romantic feelings for May Price as they engage in an exchange of letters. Tridib's death during the 1964 communal riots in Dhaka becomes a pivotal event in the novel, symbolizing the fragility of human connections across borders. May Price is a family friend of Tridib and the narrator. She is a professional oboist with a British orchestra. She develops a close epistolary friendship with Tridib and eventually finds herself falling in love with him. She represents the intersection of cultures and the complexities of cross-cultural relationships. Her relationship with Tridib is both tender and tragic, reflecting the novel's themes of love and loss. Th'amma is the narrator's grandmother. Originally born in Dhaka, she becomes the headmistress of an all-girls school in Calcutta and moves there earlier in her life. She is respected within the community and by the narrator's family and is portrayed as patient and strong-willed. Her experiences during the Partition and her deep attachment to her ancestral home in Dhaka highlight the themes of displacement and belonging. She embodies the struggles of a generation caught between tradition and the upheavals of history. Ila is the narrator's cousin. The narrator is romantically interested in her from a young age and frequently feels hurt by her flippant treatment of him. When he inadvertently reveals his feelings, she expresses sympathy. She shows an inclination to be dishonest at times, fabricating stories that make her life seem more glamorous. She comes from a wealthier background than the narrator and, seemingly as a result, treats Indian places with casual boredom. Later in life, she shows a strong preference for Western culture, as she believes India is stifling her freedom. She marries Nick Price and stays with him even after he cheats on her with multiple women. Nick Price is the younger brother of May and a friend of the narrator's family, Nick is a somewhat enigmatic figure. He marries Ila, who treats him with reverence throughout the book. The narrator expresses jealousy and frustration towards him. It is later revealed that he is engaging in multiple affairs, though the marriage still continues. Mayadebi is Tridib's mother and Th'amma's sister. She is described as decisive and strong. Shaheb is Tridib's father. He is characterized as being thoroughly Europeanized in a way that the narrator's grandmother finds distasteful. She repeatedly describes him as useless. Jethamoshai is Th'amma's uncle. She describes his efforts to care for her family in her youth. She travels to Dhaka to "rescue" him, only to cause his death at the hands of a violent mob. Robi is Tridib's younger brother. He is a more practical and grounded character compared to Tridib.

Summary of The Shadow Lines:

The story is divided into two parts. The first part is titled ‘Going Away’ and it begins in London in the early 1980s. The unnamed narrator recounts a series of stories and memories to his cousin Ila and his uncle Robi. The stories and memories belong to the narrator; his uncle Tridib; and his grandmother, Tha'mma. He describes Tridib's various habits, including his somewhat distant manner with other people and frequent visits to a tea stand in Gole Park. He informs that in 1902, Tha’mma’s father and her uncle Jethamosai alienated and began practicing their feudal duties (Jamindari) separately in Dhaka, British India. The two split their huge house and farm in two parts and raised a wall between them. The two families stopped talking to each other. Tha’mma’s younger sister Mayadebi got married to Saheb who was the son of Justice Chandrashekhar Chaudhuri, a friend of Mayadebi’s father. After their marriages, Tha’mma and Mayadebi lost all contacts with Jethamoshai’s family. Tha’mma becomes a reputed teacher and she actively takes part in processions against the British India government. The narrator’s father was still a child during that period. Saheb becomes a wealthy diplomat of British India. In 1939, he falls ill and it is advised that he must go to London for better medical treatment. When Mrs. Price, the daughter of Lionel Treswason, a British friend of Tha’mma’s and Saheb’s fathers, came to know about Saheb’s illness, she invited him to her home in London. Tridib was nine years old when he accompanied Saheb and Mayadebi to London while his elder brother Jatin stayed in Dhaka. Tridib comes close to Snipe, Mrs. Price’s husband, and he was hugely inspired by Alan Treswason, Mrs. Price’s brother. In 1940, during World War II, a bomb hit killing Alan and his friends. After that, Saheb and his family return to Dhaka. After Partition in 1947, Tha’mma’s and Mayadebi’s family moved to Calcutta.

In India, Mayadebi gives birth to her third child, Robi, while Tha’mma’s son also marries and his wife gives birth to their son, the narrator. Jatin also marries and becomes the father of a daughter named Ila. Mrs. Price, whose daughter May was an infant when Tridib was in London, has a son named Nick. Ila's parents are wealthy, and she spends her childhood traveling around the world for her father's work. The narrator, on the other hand, never gets far outside of Calcutta. Instead, he spends his time listening to Tridib tell stories about London and other faraway lands. Tridib teaches the narrator to use his imagination and explains that the world in one's imagination can be just as real as the outside world. Meanwhile, Jatin moves to London with his family where he lives with the Price Family. Ila gets enamored with Nick, son of Mrs. Price. They often visit India and Tha’mma is not happy as she finds that Ila is too much westernized. She wears western clothes, smokes and drinks alcohol. In 1959, May Price begins writing letters to Tridib and they develop a romantic relationship. Meanwhile, Ila develops a relationship with Nick whom she loves. The narrator describes a time when Ila, Robi, and the narrator were all back in Calcutta from their respective colleges, and Ila came to visit, wearing blue jeans and asking to go out to a club. Robi is hesitant, but Ila calls him a hypocrite, as he drinks when he is at school. They go to a club with music and a burlesque show. Robi wants to leave and Ila tries to dance with some businessmen, but Robi violently intervenes. Upset and angry, Ila screams at the narrator and Robi, saying she is only free when she is not in Calcutta. The narrator informed Tha’mma about the incident and she got very upset and never spoke to Ila again. The day before she dies, she sends a seething letter to his school saying that he should be expelled for visiting brothels. He finds her letter particularly disturbing as he did in fact go to those places, and had no idea how she knew. Since his childhood, the narrator fantasizes about Ila. After graduation, the narrator visits Mrs. Price’s house in London. Ila flippantly comments that life means very little outside of London and Europe at large, which angers the narrator. They have dinner at the Prices' home and May reveals that Nick lost his job because he was accused of embezzlement. The narrator and Ila go upstairs to sleep and he inadvertently reveals his feelings for her. She expresses sympathy, but prefers Nick over him.

The second part is titled ‘Coming Home’.

Tha’mma retires as a respected head teacher of her institute and struggles against the boredom of retirement. After settling in Calcutta, she never visited Dhaka, her birthplace, again. Now she begins missing her childhood memories. She informs the narrator about her childhood and their huge house in Dhaka and how their family split apart. One day while taking a walk, she meets an elderly man who informs her that her uncle Jethamosai is still alive in Dhaka. The narrator’s father feels nervous and uncomfortable when Tha’mma expresses her strong will to visit Dhaka and rescue her uncle. Meanwhile, Tridib continues his pen friendship with May. In a letter, he recounts how he saw a couple having sex in a home with a hole in it. She is upset by the letter but also feels overcome with emotion for him.

During the same time, Saheb gets a promotion and is transferred to the Indian embassy in Dhaka. When the narrator’s father informs Thamma about this, she decides to go to Dhaka with Saheb and Mayadebi. In London, Ila decides to marry Nick and the narrator feels heartbroken. During their wedding, Tridib drinks alcohol and under its effect he tries sexual advances on May who resists. The next morning, Tridib apologizes and May forgives him. After a few years, the narrator meets Ila at a concert at St Martin's-in-the-Field. Ila is too disturbed and begins crying. The narrator tries to comfort her and asks what happened. Ila informs that Nick has been cheating on her and he has many extramarital affairs. However, she insists that she will continue the marriage because she truly loves him.

Tha’mma prepares to leave for Dhaka with Tridib, Roni, and their parents. The narrator informs that it was the last time he saw Tridib. He then recounts his memories of riots. One day, when he was at school, he heard gunshots and a roar of the mob. In Dhaka, Tha’mma notices that everything has changed. Their old huge house is dilapidated now and has been turned into a bike mechanic shop. When she inquires about Jethamoshai, she comes to know that he is still living. A mechanic named Saiffudin takes her, Tridib, and May to Jethamoshai’s current address. Tha’mma is shocked after seeing Jethamoshai and her cousin in such poor condition. Jethamoshai is too old and cannot remember anything. He fails to recognize Tha’mma. Tha’mma asks her cousin to come with her and live a better life. While her cousin is willing, Jethamoshai refuses to go with them. Somehow they trick him to get into their car. Soon they leave his home, but at the same time, a riot breaks out and they encounter a violent mob standing by a fire. During their struggle against the mob, Tridib gets murdered.

The narrator recounts the violent riots in Dhaka and Calcutta during that period and how both the governments of the two nations tried to ignore the suffering of common people. He informs how the death of Tridib affected the whole family. Once Ila took the narrator and Roni to a faux Indian restaurant in London, and the owner asked them about Dhaka. Robi storms out when the owner starts praising a certain neighborhood, as it is where his brother Tridib was murdered. Outside the restaurant, he then tells the narrator and Ila that he has a recurring nightmare about the scene. One night when the narrator was having dinner with May, he asked her about Tridib’s death. She informed that when they were trying to take Tha’mma’s uncle to Saheb’s house, they were trapped by the violent mob. The mob asked them to leave Jethamoshai and they wished to kill him. Tha’mma intervened and tried to protect him. Tridib stepped in to save Tha’mma and was killed in the process.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.