The Treatment of Bibi Haldar by Jhumpa Lahiri | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘The Treatment of Bibi Haldar’ is the eighth story from the short story collection ‘Interpreter of Maladies’ by Jhumpa Lahiri, published in 1999. Interpreter of Maladies was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2000. The story talks about a poor Indian woman who has been suffering from a mysterious disease since her childhood that resembles epilepsy. The story hints at female hysteria, a diagnosis of emotional imbalance in women common in the Victorian era, that would be remedied by sexually stimulating the patient. The story is based on the themes of gender roles in society and touches on the issue of discrimination against women. The author adopted a collective or plural first-person narrative style and the narration offers the point of view of the whole society of neighboring women in the village of Bibi Haldar.

Characters of ‘The Treatment of Bibi Haldar’:

Bibi Haldar is the main character of the story. She is a 29-year-old poor unmarried woman living in a village in India. Bibi suffers from an epilepsy-like illness that causes seizures. Her father tried to find a cure for her situation and consulted various doctors practicing allopathy, homeopathy, Ayurveda, and other fields of medical science however, she couldn’t be cured. After her father’s death, there was no one to take care of her but one of her cousins and his wife. She is left in the meager care of her eldest cousin and his wife. Her family does not help her look for a husband despite her desires. When Haldar's daughter becomes ill, they blame Bibi. When they move away, it is up to the village women to assume her care. Bibi withdraws from society until the women, fearing she is ill, find her mysteriously pregnant. She soon fixes up her cousin's cosmetics stall and provides for her son. Haldar is Bibi Haldar’s elder cousin. He doesn’t care much about Bibi Haldar and her illness. Even though Bibi Haldar helps his wife with homely chores and also helps him manage his business of cosmetics in the village, he considers her a burden that he is forced to suffer. He and his wife share irrational fears of Bibi's effect on their child. Haldar is driven out of business by the women who disagree with his treatment of Bibi. He abandons his cousin by leaving town without a word. Haldar’s wife is more concerned about profits than with the health of her cousin-in-law. She suspects that Bibi Haldar may cause sickness to her child and banishes Bibi from their home. ‘We’ the narrators represent all the other women in the town. Women have the authority in the narrative even if they do not in their village. In retaliation for the ‘ill’ treatment of Bibi, they withdraw their business from Haldar’s cosmetics shop, ruining him. But they only act collectively, not as individuals. The title refers to both, the ill-treatment of Bibi Haldar by her cousin and his wife, and to the "relations" prescribed to cure her condition. Anyhow, she miraculously improves after getting pregnant, which suggests that her own will to improve increases as she feels responsible for her child yet to be born. After giving birth, she confidently rebuilds the fallen business of cosmetics that her cousin left.

Summary of The Treatment of Bibi Haldar:

Bibi Haldar, an Indian woman who is 29 years old, has suffered for the greater part of her life from a mysterious, epilepsy-like ailment that no doctor or priest has been able to alleviate or cure. When her father was alive, he tried everything possible to find a cure. He consulted allopath, homeopath, and Ayurveda doctors, but nothing helped. After X-rays, medical probes, and auscultations, doctors often offered random advice but nothing could cure her. And then her father died. She still was unmarried, and alone. Bibi Haldar was forced to live in the care of a cousin, Haldar, and his wife, who run a cosmetic shop despite knowing that her cousin and his wife do not like her much. Bibi keeps the inventory of her brother's cosmetics stall and is watched over by the women of their community. She is provided only meals, a room, and a length of cotton to replenish her wardrobe each year. Bibi sweeps the store, wondering loudly why she was cursed to this fate, to be alone and jealous of the wives and mothers around her. She often would complain about the mistreatment she got from her cousin’s wife. The women were sympathetic to her and would often go to Haldar’s cosmetic shop with the intent to help Bibi. One day, Bibi suffers a terribly violent fit. The women of the neighborhood insist Haldar take Bibi to get some medical care. Finally, he takes her to a polyclinic run by a palmist. The palmist prescribes marriage as a cure, “Relations will calm her blood,” he says.

The idea excites Bibi who begins dreaming of her marriage. The village women too look for a suitable match. However, Bibi’s cousin and his wife are indifferent. Her cousin feels she is unfit for marriage, while his wife believes that Bibi is cursed by the devil. Her cousin also feels that Bibi at his house offers enough help and because of sympathy, women gather around his shop, increasing his sales. Thus, he is uninterested in trying to get Bibi married. The village women meet Haldar’s wife and ask why they are reluctant to marry Bibi off to someone suitable. Haldar’s wife says that she is already 29 years old, too old to get a good match. Furthermore, she has no skills to be a good wife. Her studies ceased prematurely, she is not allowed to watch TV, she doesn’t know cooking, sewing, or how to please a man. Bibi Haldar insists on her marriage and demands to be photographed for potential in-laws, but Haldar refuses; Bibi retaliates by shrugging off her work in favor of telling stories about Haldar and his wife. Haldar relents and places an ad: “GIRL, UNSTABLE, HEIGHT 152 CENTIMETERS, SEEKS HUSBAND.”

Nobody notices the ad. However, the women of the village keep trying to teach Bibi about her wifely duties. Haldar doesn’t like it much but he cannot stop women from visiting his shop and meeting Bibi.

That November, Haldar's wife is pregnant, and she becomes suspicious that if Bibi remains close to her, her would-be child may also get affected by her curse or illness. Bibi is forced to keep away from her for fear of infecting the child. Her plates are not washed with the others, and she is given separate towels and soap. 

One day, Bibi suffers another fit near the bank of the pond and falls there. The men on the bank lift her up, take her to her home, and give her a sedative medicine. When they reach her home, her cousin and his wife refuse to let her in. Bibi is then forced to sleep in the store room. Haldar’s wife suffers a difficult delivery of the child and gives birth to a daughter. She insists that Bibi should not be allowed in the house. Bibi’s cousin though let her in the basement. Bibi suffers more loneliness and unchecked fits. When the women of the village notice her bad situation, they express their concerns to her cousin. However, Haldar ignores their pleas and as a result, the women decide to stop buying anything from his shop. Haldar suffers losses but is not ready to mend his ways and treat Bibi well. In autumn, Haldar's daughter becomes ill and his wife cruelly blames Bibi. She is forced to go back to the storeroom. Bibi suffers from disappointment, depression, and her regular fits. She stops socializing—and stops searching for a husband as if she is retiring from life. The women of the village notice all this and totally discard buying anything from Haldar’s shop. By the end of the year, Haldar suffers unbearable losses and decides to pack his bags and move away with his family, leaving no trace of him, while leaving Bibi alone in the storeroom. Anyhow, the women of the village come to know about her and they decide to inform another known relative of Bibi but he too doesn’t respond. The women spruce up the storeroom and send their children to play on the roof of her storeroom to alert others in the event of an attack. At night, however, Bibi is left alone. She avoids talking to other women and never leaves the roof of the storeroom.

In spring, women notice that Bibi is vomiting and soon they find out that she is pregnant. They try to ascertain who is the father. They ask if Bibi was forced or raped but she says that she can’t remember what happened. The women visit the storeroom to inspect and find that everything is tidy and nothing has been disturbed, thus, there is no evidence of rape. They decide to teach Bibi how to take care of herself during pregnancy. Soon she gives birth to a son and the women notice that Bibi is full of confidence. She not only skillfully takes care of her newly born son, but also manages to take Haldar’s old creams and wares out of the storeroom and reopen his shop. The women willfully help her and spread the word of mouth about her shop and soon the stall is providing enough money for Bibi to raise her son. The women keep trying to pry upon her and ask her about the father of her son but she never discusses that. However, the women notice that now Bibi seems to be fully cured. They wonder if the ‘relationship’ with the unknown man and her son cured her, or was she cured by the sense of responsibility and freedom from the demeaning and humiliating environment she suffered under her cousin and his wife.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Heresy of Paraphrase by Cleanth Brooks | Context, Arguments, Explanation

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. "The Heresy of Paraphrase" is a significant concept introduced by Cleanth Brooks, a prominent figure in the New Criticism movement.

“The Heresy of Paraphrase’ refers to a paradox suggesting that it is impossible to paraphrase a poem because paraphrasing removes its form, which is an integral part of its meaning. The term was coined by Cleanth Brooks in the last and eponymous chapter of his book The Well Wrought Urn published in 1947.

Cleanth Brooks is a well-renowned literary critic associated with the school of New Criticism, his books, including Understanding Poetry, and The Well Wrought Urn offer important aspects of the literary theory of New Criticism. The Well Wrought Urn is a collection of 11 critical essays in which Cleanth Brooks explains the importance of close reading while analyzing different poetic works without giving any credence to the historical context and authorial intent. The first chapter introduces and explains the Paradox as an essential element of poetic language. In the eleventh and final chapter, Brooks clubs all the previous 10 essays and suggests the final paradox as the ‘Heresy of Paraphrase’ and states that the meaning of a poem consists precisely in what is not translatable. Poetic meaning is bound up with the particular disposition of the words—their sound, rhythm, and arrangement—in short, with the “sensory embodiment” provided by the poem itself. To alter that embodiment is to produce either another poem (and therefore another meaning) or something that is not a work of art at all, and which therefore lacks completely the kind of meaning for which works of art are valued. Hence no poetry is translatable, and critics cannot do better than to point to the objective features of the poem that most seem to them to be worthy of attention.

What is the worth of Paraphrasing then?

It may appear ironic because, in the previous ten essays, Brooks simply paraphrased the well-known poems to offer their meanings as per his analysis. However, Cleanth Brooks is not saying that paraphrasing is wrong or should be avoided. What he is saying is it is wrong, a heresy, to assume that paraphrasing can offer the meaning of a poetic work. He rejects the traditional ways of analyzing poetic works which include paraphrasing a poem and relating it to the historical context and social setup of the period in which the poem was written, along with the biographical background of the poet or author and his intent while writing the poem. According to Cleanth Brooks, ‘Traditional way of analyzing a poem is misleading. It suggests that poems are just statements. But poems are complex and ambiguous. Yet, paraphrase can be used as a reference. It is only an initial state or the first step to predict the move of the critic and not the end of criticism.’

What Brooks means is that when we read a summary or paraphrase of poetic content, we do not actually reach the meaning of the poem itself, rather we encounter the meaning that the critic who paraphrased or summarized the poem is trying to expound. We can predict the move of the critic by that paraphrase but not the actual meaning of that poem that has been analyzed and summarized.

The inseparability of Content and Form:

The German Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in his work ‘Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art’ 1832 says that

Our sensuous appreciation of art concentrates upon the given “appearance”—the “form,” which holds our attention and gives to the work of art its peculiar individuality. Because it addresses itself to our sensory appreciation, the work of art is essentially concrete, to be understood by an act of perception rather than by a process of discursive thought. At the same time, our understanding of the work of art is in part intellectual; we seek in it a conceptual content, which it presents to us in the form of an idea. One purpose of critical interpretation is to expound this idea in discursive form—to give the equivalent of the content of the work of art in another, nonsensuous idiom. But criticism can never succeed in this task, for by separating the content from the particular form, it abolishes its individuality. The content presented then ceases to be the exact content of that work of art. In losing its individuality, the content loses its aesthetic reality; it thus ceases to be a reason for attending to the particular work of art that first attracted our critical attention. Content is, therefore, inseparable from form, and form in turn inseparable from content.

Distinguishing between Content and Form:

Brooks develops the same idea in his essay and says that while the content of the poem is that part that is paraphrasable, the form of the poem is the organic whole or organic unity of the poetic work, it is the whole unblemished meaning of the poem. The content of a literary work offers the idea of what is it about in the simplest sense. However, Form represents the complexity of the poem.

Cleanth argues that a truly great poem isn't merely a collection of parts, but a unified whole where every element—image, metaphor, rhythm, structure, and meaning—works together harmoniously. Each element contributes to and enhances the overall effect, creating a complex interplay where the parts are inseparable from the whole, and the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Brooks believed that a poem's meaning isn't explicitly stated but rather emerges from the intricate interaction of these elements. However, when we paraphrase it, we may offer the content but will fail to offer the form that is not paraphrasable.

To Be Or Not to be

Let us understand the idea of heresy of paraphrasing through the example of William Shakespeare’s famous soliloquy ‘To be or not to be’ from Hamlet.

One can offer the content of Hamlet simply as it is the story of a young Danish prince who returns home to avenge his father’s death at his uncle’s hands. This is the content of Hamlet. However, the form of Hamlet is a much bigger thing and it is not paraphrasable.

We can say that Hamlet is written in blank verse, but that is just a part of the structure. We may also mention the figures of speech used by Shakespeare in the play, however, that too doesn’t represent the form of Hamlet. Form is not a mere collection of metaphor, rhyme, meter, or structure, rather, it is the organic amalgamation, organic whole, or organic unity of the work that makes it unique. Each word, metaphor, simile, rhyme, and meter of the work along with the plot is contextualized and related to the other parts of the work and loses its meaning if separated.

The phrase "To be, or not to be" encapsulates a profound existential dilemma. It reflects Hamlet's deep internal conflict about existence and the nature of life and death. This complexity cannot be fully captured in a simple paraphrase.  The irony embedded in Hamlet's contemplation is crucial to understanding the emotional weight of the soliloquy. The phrase itself is not just a question; it carries layers of meaning that arise from Hamlet's situation, his thoughts on mortality, and the moral implications of his choices. If one were to paraphrase this line, the poetic form, including its rhythm, sound, and emotional resonance, would be lost. The beauty of Shakespeare's language and the specific choice of words contribute significantly to the overall impact of the soliloquy.

The tension between the form (the structure and sound of the words) and the content (the philosophical questions being posed) is essential to the poem's meaning. This tension is diminished when the soliloquy is reduced to a mere summary.

Brooks illustrates the Paradox of Paraphrase that while a paraphrase might convey a similar rational meaning, it fails to capture the complexity and nuance of the original work. The emotional and aesthetic experience of the poem is irreplaceable.

Books says that paraphrasing a poem can lead readers to look for logical coherence where there aren't any. He also says that paraphrasing can lead to misconceiving metaphors and meter. He further says that critics should focus on the role of language in a poem and how it expresses ideas. He also says that critics should resist reducing a poem to a simple narrative or didactic message.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the concepts of Literary theories and Criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Boat Stealing | Extract from The Prelude by William Wordsworth | Structure, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Prelude is an epic-length autobiographical poem by William Wordsworth published posthumously in 1850. The Prelude has 14 volumes and the first book of The Prelude is titled Childhood and School-Time. The poem traces Wordsworth's life from his childhood in the Lake District, highlighting formative experiences that influenced his poetic development, to his reflections on adulthood and the creative process.

Boat Stealing is an interesting Extract from The Prelude in which the poet emphasizes his relationship with nature and offers two contrasting ideas about nature. In Books 1 and 2, Wordsworth uses personification to describe nature, referring to it as “her” or “she” to allude to the idea of Mother Nature. Wordsworth lost his mother when he was 8 years old and then his father died in 1783 when he was 13 years old. He found solace in nature and considered nature as a parental, guiding figure.

Man and nature have a distinct relationship. Often men consider nature as a treasure to exploit, control, use, and to make it do as we please and to use it to our benefit. On the other hand, some believe that nature is all encompassing superior force that cannot be controlled. In the extract ‘Boat Stealing’, Wordsworth offers both ideas and allows the reader to decide what nature means to him or herself personally.

Structure of ‘Boat Stealing’:

The Prelude is written in blank verse and so is this extract. Thus, there is no rhyming scheme in the 44 lines of this extract from The Prelude while all these lines are written in iambic pentameter. This particular extract, Boat Stealing, is set in the Lake District, an area in northwest England known for its lakes, forests, and mountains. The extract begins with the speaker feeling confident and comfortable in nature, but his mood shifts when he sees the mountain. It is an autobiographical poem and thus, it is safe to assume that the speaker is William Wordsworth himself.

The extract is written in a narrative poetic style with no stanza breaks. It appears like a 44-line long text, a single verse paragraph, written in iambic pentameter (blank verse) without any specific rhyme scheme while the poet used hypotaxis, enjambment, imagery, metaphors, symbolism, simile, and personification.

Summary of ‘Boat Stealing’:

Lines 1-10

“One summer evening (led by her) I found
A little boat tied to a willow tree
Within a rocky cove, its usual home.
Straight I unloosed her chain, and stepping in
Pushed from the shore. It was an act of stealth
And troubled pleasure, nor without the voice
Of mountain-echoes did my boat move on;
Leaving behind her still, on either side,
Small circles glittering idly in the moon,
Until they melted all into one track”

The poet begins by personifying nature as his guide and mentions nature as ‘her’, alluding to the idea of Mother Nature.  Here, nature—which refers to the earth, sky, the organic environment, and everything around the speaker—becomes a female figure. This extract is a small part of the much longer Book 1 of The Prelude.  In the verse paragraph preceding this one, the speaker personifies nature as a kind of maternal figure that instructs the speaker. Wordsworth uses ‘the boat’ as a symbol to express his innocence at that age, and his naive attitude towards nature. He says that one night, Mother Nature led him to "A little boat tied to a willow tree." He means that all that was happening was spontaneous, as if he was inspired by nature. He didn’t plan to go and find the boat but now he found it. The boat increased his curiosity and a sense of adventure and he decided to take the boat and row in the lake, though he knew, he was not the owner of the boat. He didn’t know where the boat was hidden but nature led him to the boat. In the fourth line, the speaker again uses Personification and mentions the boat as ‘her.’ He untied the boat and rowed it out in the peaceful water of the lake. As he rowed the boat along, he could hear the “mountain echoes” and see the “small circles glittering” as his boat made ripples in the water. He describes the “sparkling light” as it reflected off the surface of the water. 

Lines 11-18

“Of sparkling light. But now, like one who rows,
Proud of his skill, to reach a chosen point
With an unswerving line, I fixed my view
Upon the summit of a craggy ridge,
The horizon's utmost boundary; far above
Was nothing but the stars and the grey sky.
She was an elfin pinnace; lustily
I dipped my oars into the silent lake,”

The speaker describes the moonlight as it reflects and sparkles on the surface of the lake. The speaker, who is a young boy, feels excited as he rows the boat skillfully. It is not a planned escapade and he doesn’t know where he is leading to. Yet, he feels confident as if he knows the destination well. In the same instance, the poet has an idea of where he is heading. He observes ‘a craggy ridge’ and sets his eyes on the high mountain peak, rowing the boat towards it. The craggy ridge is that huge mountain. He describes the high mountain peak as the ‘horizon’s utmost boundary,’ as he is unable to see anything beyond it but ‘stars and the grey sky.’ The poet uses imagery to express a tranquil and beautiful picture of nature and a boy’s ability to engage with it. The boy is proud of his skills at rowing the boat with Elan. He describes the small boat as ‘elfin pinnace,’ that is, an elf's boat. The speaker describes the small boat as magical and fairy-tale-like and he completely controls it, which offers him a sense of exhilaration. He confidently rowed towards the huge peak.

Lines 19-26

“And, as I rose upon the stroke, my boat
Went heaving through the water like a swan;
When, from behind that craggy steep till then
The horizon's bound, a huge peak, black and huge,
As if with voluntary power instinct,
Upreared its head. I struck and struck again,
And growing still in stature the grim shape
Towered up between me and the stars, and still,”

As the boy uses his oars to row the boat, he feels in total control of the boat which moves like a swan now towards the destination. The speaker describes the boat as a swan, a living animal, to suggest that the boat is an inherent part of nature itself. The boat symbolizes his innocence and his feeling of oneness with nature.

As he moved forward, he noticed that there was something more awe-inspiring than the ‘craggy ridge’ he noticed before. He sees another ‘huge peak, black and huge.’ As he moves towards the ‘craggy ridge’ his chosen destination, he notices something more high, raising its head from behind the ‘craggy ridge’ as if observing the boy. As the boat continues to move forward, the size of the huge mountain peak appears more formidable. The speaker feels as if the huge peak is a living beast, ‘huge and black’. The speaker is unsure if the huge figure that surpasses the ‘craggy ridge’ is a live frightening beast or another huge, bigger mountain peak. 

Lines 26-34

“For so it seemed, with purpose of its own
And measured motion like a living thing,
Strode after me. With trembling oars I turned,
And through the silent water stole my way
Back to the covert of the willow tree;
There in her mooring-place I left my bark, -
And through the meadows homeward went, in grave
And serious mood; but after I had seen”

The speaker was unsure if the frightening black, huge figure appearing to rise from behind his chosen destination was a living beast or not because it appeared as if that black figure was noticing his movements, as if waiting for him like a living beast, to attack and prey over him. The boy was no longer enjoying a peaceful encounter with nature. Now, there was something to fear greatly. He turned his boat around, and made his way back “with trembling oars”. The speaker is no longer confident enough to feel that he controls nature. Even he fails to control the small boat that he was rowing so confidently just a little time ago. The silent water of the lake too appeared to stop him from running back. Anyhow, he reached the same willow tree and tied the boat back to the tree. He still felt that the huge black figure was stalking him as he moved back to his home. He was frightened and serious after what he had seen and felt. The experience the speaker has here reveals that nature is not always man’s friend. In fact, there are mysterious and dangerous beings in nature. Nature is suddenly something not only to be enjoyed but something to be feared. The idea is to suggest that nature is much more powerful than what we expect it to be and though we try to control and exploit it, nature remains beyond our grasp.

Lines 35-44

“That spectacle, for many days, my brain
Worked with a dim and undetermined sense
Of unknown modes of being; o'er my thoughts
There hung a darkness, call it solitude
Or blank desertion. No familiar shapes
Remained, no pleasant images of trees,
Of sea or sky, no colours of green fields;
But huge and mighty forms, that do not live
Like living men, moved slowly through the mind
By day, and were a trouble to my dreams.”

In these lines, the speaker expresses the change he felt in himself after that incident. He realized that though he always found himself so near to nature, and considered himself a part of it, he knows very little of it. He had a dark, mysterious intuition that there were forms of existence that he knew nothing about. His thoughts were covered in a kind of darkness; one may call it solitude or empty abandonment. He was unable to feel the same oneness with nature again. After having encountered a part of nature that terrified him, the speaker became aware that he was not in control of nature. He was not able to subdue it and use it to his pleasure.

No recognizable shapes remained in his mind, no nice images of trees, sea, or sky. He couldn't picture the greens of fields. Instead, giant, powerful shapes—that were not alive in the same way that people are alive—moved slowly in his mind during the day. At night, these shapes gave him troubling dreams. This sudden change in his feelings symbolizes the maturation of the kid’s mind as he moves toward adulthood. He has passed from the carefree, fearless days of childhood into the reality of adulthood. Unlike before, he was not sure of his surroundings anymore. He was now keenly aware that he could encounter danger at every turn, and this awareness “hung a darkness” over him and made him feel a “blank desertion”. He now knew that the world was a dangerous place.

The speaker doesn’t make it clear if he encountered some real beast or a sepulcher or if was it just a huge black mountain appearing to move in the darkness. Whatever it was, the incident helped him to grow up and leave his childlike attitude, and to be more cautious.

The extract describes the transformation of the boy from a fearless, carefree boy, to an adult who was aware of the realities of the dangerous world in which he lived. The boat symbolizes his innocence, which he abandoned back at the willow tree. Now he is mature and aware of the struggles of life in the world. The mountain peak that frightened the boy symbolizes nature’s independence from human control. It suggests a sense of scale in which humans are dwarfed by "huge and mighty forms."

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

The Prelude by William Wordsworth | Summary, Important Points and Quotes

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. The Prelude, or Growth of a Poet’s Mind; An Autobiographical Poem,’ is a fourteen-volume epic-length poem by William Wordsworth written in unrhymed iambic pentameter (Blank Verse). Wordsworth began writing the poem in 1799 and it was completed in 1805. However, it remained unpublished. Wordsworth didn’t give any title to this poem, rather preferred calling it, ‘The Poem to Coleridge.’ In 1850, after his death, his widow Mary Hutchinson gave the title The Prelude and it was published posthumously, three months after Wordsworth died in 1850.

The Prelude as a Manifesto of Romanticism:

The Prelude details the growth of the poet's mind and ideas. The poem contrasts the beauty and solace found in nature with the disappointments and frustrations of society. It traces Wordsworth's life from his childhood in the Lake District, highlighting formative experiences that influenced his poetic development, to his reflections on adulthood and the creative process. It's considered a seminal work of Romanticism, demonstrating a deep connection between humanity and nature and emphasizing the subjective experience of the individual. The Prelude also expresses impatience with Enlightenment-era faith in reason over emotion, arguing that true reason is based on imagination rather than cool detachment. This poem also explores political justice and tyranny regarding the French Revolution. It is often considered a manifesto of the Romantic movement from many different angles—the rejection of Enlightenment attitudes, the defense of nature in the face of industrialization, the importance of transcendence and emotion, the influence of childhood throughout life, and the moral necessity of radical politics.

The Prelude is a first-person narrative poem largely addressed to Wordsworth’s friend Samuel Taylor Coleridge.

The poem was intended as the prologue to a long three-part epic and philosophical poem, The Recluse.

The Prelude and the French Revolution:

Wordsworth spent significant time in France during the French Revolution. Wordsworth's experience with the French Revolution profoundly shaped his poetic vision and remains a key theme in The Prelude.

Initially, Wordsworth was enthusiastic about the Revolution's ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. He witnessed revolutionary events firsthand during his time in France, and this experience deeply influenced his early poetic development. However, as the Revolution descended into violence and the Reign of Terror, his views shifted. The poem charts this evolution, showcasing the disillusionment and loss of idealism that Wordsworth felt as the Revolution's promise gave way to brutality. This disillusionment is reflected in the poem's shift in tone and focus. While the early sections of The Prelude are imbued with a sense of optimism and revolutionary fervor, later sections reflect a more somber and introspective tone, grappling with the complexities of political upheaval and the darker aspects of human nature. The impact of the French Revolution on Wordsworth is evident not only in the poem's thematic content but also in its structure and style. The poem's autobiographical nature allows Wordsworth to explore his personal journey through the Revolution, reflecting on its impact on his own beliefs and values. This personal reflection, coupled with the broader historical context of the Revolution, makes The Prelude a rich and complex exploration of the ideals and realities of revolutionary change.

Intentions behind The Prelude and The Recluse:

Initially, William Wordsworth and his friend Samuel Taylor Coleridge planned to write an epic in blank verse. Wordsworth began to write the introductory part to The Recluse in 1798 but never completed the work which was supposed to have three parts. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge were hugely inspired by John Milton’s magnum opus Paradise Lost. However, they considered it a work of the Enlightenment (neo-classical) era and wished to produce a work that may surpass the length and philosophical depth of Milton’s Paradise Lost. In Book 1 of The Prelude, Wordsworth mentions Paradise Lost and says that Milton rewrote God's creation and The Fall of Man in Paradise Lost to "justify the ways of God to men," however, he chooses his own mind and imagination as a subject worthy of epic.

Coleridge encouraged Wordsworth to write about his experiences in France in a letter to him in 1799 in which he said, “I wish you would write a poem, in blank verse, addressed to those who, in consequence of the complete failure of the French Revolution, have thrown up all hopes of amelioration of mankind, and are sinking into an almost Epicurean selfishness, disguising the same under the soft titles of domestic attachment and contempt for visionary philosophies. It would do great good, and might form a Part of 'The Recluse'." Another important theme of the poem was to establish the ideals of Romanticism.

The Fourteen Volumes of The Prelude:

Book 1 is titled Introduction – Childhood and School-Time,

The book begins with lines ---

O there is blessing in this gentle breeze,

A visitant that while it fans my cheek

Doth seem half-conscious of the joy it brings

From the green fields, and from yon azure sky.

Wordsworth began writing The Prelude in 1798 when he was 28 years old. The poem begins as he returns from the busy city of London to the rural area of the idyllic Lake District, where Wordsworth grew up. He is relieved and thrilled, even comparing the crowded city to a place of captivity. He argues that nature, having been established as an important part of his life early on, remains an ever-present element of his work and worldview. Thus, Wordsworth advances a typically Romantic idea that an individual's childhood influences and experiences continue to shape them throughout their lives. In Line 181 of Book 1, Wordsworth mentions John Milton and Paradise Lost. The speaker continues to reminisce about his childhood experiences and mentions many of his explorations. One such excerpt mentioned in Book 1 is that of Boat Stealing, an especially intense memory. The speaker recalls, he stole a small boat and steered it beneath some massive rock formations. These formations affected him deeply, inspiring awe, horror, and curiosity long after he returned to the boat. Wordsworth uses personification to describe nature, referring to it as “her” or “she” to allude to the idea of Mother Nature. 

Book 2 is titled School-Time (Continued)

In Book 2, Wordsworth describes nature as a benevolent but extremely powerful force. He advances the pantheistic idea that God and nature are inseparable. 

Book 3 is titled Residence at Cambridge.

In Book 3, Wordsworth reflects on his days as a student at the Cambridge University. The speaker leaves home to attend Cambridge. He experiences a degree of culture shock as separated from the rustic surroundings of his childhood, he confronts an atmosphere of pretension and inauthenticity. At the same time, he is thrilled to be in a place that once was home to his heroes, including poets like John Milton.

Book 4 is titled Summer Vacation. The speaker returns home from Cambridge for summer vacation, re-encountering the beloved landscape of his youth through newly appreciative and yet newly distant eyes. This book also contains a famous scene in which the speaker encounters a sickly soldier and helps him to a shelter for the night.

Book 5 is titled Books in which Wordsworth discusses the importance of books and arts in human life.  The speaker laments at the ephemerality of mankind's great works of art when compared to the immortality of nature. The speaker is severely distressed by this mismatch but also argues that books and poetry are one of the most suitable ways for people to express the strong emotions that nature can induce.

Book 6 is titled Cambridge and the Alps.

The speaker quickly describes the end of his years at Cambridge and introduces two important characters. One is his sister, Dorothy. The other is Samuel Taylor Coleridge, to whom the book is addressed—for the first time, Wordsworth directly alludes to Coleridge's role as his intended audience. The speaker then describes a walking tour of the French Alps, which took place at the peak of the Revolution and was full of joyful celebration.

Book 7 is titled Residence in London.  The speaker discusses a period when he was living in London. He found certain elements of London exciting but was distressed by the city's crowdedness, anonymity, and distance from nature.

Book 8 is titled Retrospect – Love of Nature Leading to Love of Man. In this part, Wordsworth mentions the importance of sweet memories of the past. The speaker looks back and explains in more detail how an early exposure to nature shaped his poetic sensibilities, and how the harsh landscapes of Britain offer a certain inspiration distinct from the pleasant, warm nature of the Mediterranean.

Books 9, 10, and 11 are titled Residence in France, Residence in France Continued, and again, Residence in France Continued. In book 9, the speaker discusses his days in France, where he befriended a pro-Revolution soldier and witnessed firsthand the injustices that led to the overturning of the monarchy. He recounts in detail the story of a young couple torn apart by the social conservatism and hierarchy of pre-revolutionary France. In Book 10, he discusses the radical phase of the French Revolution, denouncing the violence of Robespierre and his allies, and remembering fondly the moment when he learned that Robespierre had died. In Book 10, the speaker describes
how his political disillusionment led him to mistakenly embrace an overly skeptical, self-satisfied rationalist philosophy that he now renounces. He also mentions that his friend Coleridge is ill and has gone to Italy, where he is spending time to rehabilitate his health.

Book 12 is titled Imagination and Taste, How Impaired and Restored. In this book, Wordsworth gives the idea of Spots of Time. He returns from France and tries to regain his usual self after the trauma that he faced while witnessing the violence of the French Revolution.

"There are in our existence spots of time,

That with distinct pre-eminence retained.

A renovating virtue, whence–depressed.

By false opinion and contentious thought”

Wordsworth uses "spots of time" to describe moments from childhood that are captured in memory. He believed that these moments are important because they can help people resist false opinions and contentious thoughts. Wordsworth describes "spots of time" as specific, significant moments in life that stand out due to their emotional or spiritual impact. These moments are often tied to nature and personal experiences. He suggests that these moments possess a "renovating virtue," meaning they have the power to uplift and rejuvenate the spirit, especially during times of distress or confusion. These moments are marked by their clarity and importance, often providing insight or a sense of peace. Wordsworth suggests that "spots of time" are pivotal moments that hold deep meaning and transformative power in his life and poetry. They serve as reminders of the beauty and complexity of human experience.

Book 13 is titled Imagination and Taste, How Impaired and Restored (Concluded), in which the speaker continues to discuss the importance of spots of time and how he recovered his connection with nature and his lively imagination after he flirts with severe rationalism in France. It recounts the speaker's return to the rural areas where he grew up, which enabled this recovery of imaginative power.

The final chapter or Book 14 is titled Conclusion, in which the speaker articulates a philosophy of love in which the love of individual people and universal, divine love work in conjunction. He also acknowledges the inspiration and help provided by his sister Dorothy and his dear friend S. T. Coleridge. Wordsworth concludes the book with the hope that his poem will stand the test of time and that its writing will prove to have been justified.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards! 

This Blessed House by Jhumpa Lahiri | Characters, Summary, Analysis

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. ‘This Blessed House’ is the seventh short story by Jhumpa Lahiri from her short story collection Interpreter of Maladies published in 1999. The short-story collection won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 2000. The story is about a newly married couple, explaining the importance of compromises in a healthy married life and highlighting that without mutual give-and-take, a relationship is unlikely to be very happy. The story also delves into the themes of social expectations and self-identity, and the need for assimilation in a multicultural set-up.

Characters of ‘This Blessed House’:

Sanjeev is the main character of the story, he is a successful American Indian, an engineering major at MIT, and then moved from Boston to Hartford, Connecticut to work at a firm. He is expecting the VP position in the firm. He is a meticulous, grown-up, uptight, and conscientious person. He is not a religious person but he values his Indian roots, Indian culture, and heritage. He is meticulously organized and methodical in his work and life. He is self-conscious and puts significant effort into creating and maintaining his image for others. His family pressurizes him for marriage and he agrees. His mother suggests a girl to him and he begins a long-distance courtship with her soon, within two months, he marries that girl named Twinkle. She is just opposite to Sanjeev. Twinkle is a 27-year-old graduate student at Stanford who's writing her master's thesis on an Irish poet. Her formal name is Tamina but she prefers being called by her nickname Twinkle. Her name nickname comes from the nursery rhyme ‘Twinkle Twinkle Little Star’ and suits her childlike intensely curious and playful nature. She is extroverted, adventurous, and endearing to others. Recently, she broke up with an American actor and then she was introduced to Sanjeev by her family. Unlike Sanjeev, she is more open to American culture and religious patterns.

Summary of This Blessed House:

Sanjeev bought a house in Connecticut before leaving for India for his marriage with Twinkle and determined that he and his bride should live there forever. He liked the house and was impressed by the wainscoting, the solarium, the brass finishes, and other details. He imagined moving into the house with his wife after his marriage.

As they settle in, they find Christian icons everywhere in the house. Sanjeev feels those leftover artifacts are mere trash and wishes to dispose of them. Sanjeev is concerned about how the pieces will reflect on him. He doesn’t want others to think they are Christian. He sees them as trivial, profane, and silly objects. However, Twinkle is excited about these items and feels they are a kind of treasure hunt. The very first thing they find out is a porcelain effigy of Jesus kept beside a bottle of malt vinegar left in the kitchen by the previous owner. Sanjeev asks Twinkle to throw both items away but Twinkle insists on keeping them safe on the mantle. Twinkle continues to look for more and finds many other snow globes, statues, and 3-D posters. Sanjeev fails to understand why Twinkle is so excited about them. He has arranged for a party to introduce his wife to his co-workers but he worries what they would think of him when they notice the Christian artifacts on the mantle. Twinkle says that he is thinking too much about nothing.

Twinkle continues to look for other similar artifacts hidden around the house while Sanjeev wonders why she is killing time, why couldn’t she unpack her bags, dust and clean the house, and arrange the things properly as they should be. By the end of the week, Twinkle finds another impressive poster of crying Jesus and declares that she will hang the poster on the wall of the living hall. Sanjeev protests and Twinkle says that he is a killjoy who worries too much about what others think. Anyhow, she agrees to keep the poster in her study room behind the door. Sanjeev continues unpacking his things while he listens to Mahler’s fifth symphony. He reads the liner notes on the record and learns that the fifth symphony was Mahler’s version of a marriage proposal. Sanjeev finds it romantic but Twinkle, who is cleaning and flushing the toilet objects to it and yells that the music puts her to sleep. Sanjeev puts off the music and remembers how he met Twinkle. They only met four months prior, at a birthday party. Her mother introduced him to her. She had just been dumped by an American actor; he was well-off but single and lonely. And their parents got them to see an Indian matchmaker who convinced them to marry. They began an intense long-distance relationship with Twinkle after that night. They married in India shortly thereafter and Twinkle moved to Connecticut – where she knew no one. While Sanjeev is meticulous, he finds Twinkle lazy and can’t get her butt off the couch and clean up around the house. Moreover, she isn’t even devoted to her post-graduation thesis that she is supposed to submit that year.

Sanjeev wonders if she can get much of anything done. Sanjeev wonders if he really loves Twinkle who is now his wife. He never experienced love as he had never been in a relationship before. However, he knows for certain that love is not what he had in his old life – full of takeout meals and classical CDs arriving by mail. Now, his life is different, changed, and a bit disturbed, he wonders if it is love. Twinkle continues to pester him with her petty childlike activities. She does things as if she doesn’t care for anything. Sanjeev found her calling long-distance during peak hours just to gossip with her friend. He noticed that she hardly cooked anything. Often, she buys pre-made stuff and adds her own spin. She also makes Sanjeev feel stupid because she's so bright, curious, and breezy about everything.

A week before the housewarming party, Twinkle and Sanjeev decide to clean the lawn filled with fallen leaves. Twinkle notices something across the yard, hidden beneath the leaves and she screams. Sanjeev runs over to her, thinking she has found a dead animal or snake. However, it is a bust of the Virgin Mary. Twinkle is on the seventh cloud as she bursts with delight and insists that they should keep the bust of the Virgin Mary on the property as a decorative piece. But Sanjeev doesn’t agree. He is worried about what the neighbors will think, as they are Hindu and not Christian. Twinkle argues with him but Sanjeev declares that he is going to throw out the statue. She rises up and marches away in a towel. She tells Sanjeev she hates him, then collapses in his arms in tears. Sanjeev relents and agrees to keep the statue up in an alcove out of sight from the main road but still visible to all who visit their home. Sanjeev wonders again if his decision to marry Twinkle was right. He remembers the way Twinkle acted on a night soon after their marriage. They were in NYC; Twinkle was drunk and dancing with him in the streets. He often finds himself uncomfortable with Twinkle's free-wheeling ways.

The night of the housewarming party, Twinkle avoids removing the objects from the mantle and Sanjeev hopes his guests – mostly colleagues – will notice the pillars of the house more. Sanjeev does most of the preparations for the party. As usual, Twinkle orders fish stew for the party and then spins off the dish.  She improvises the recipe, not bothering to write down how she has put the stew together. She smokes cigarettes and chats on the phone while casually adding to her stew some malt vinegar she has found around the house. When Sanjeev tastes the dish, he finds the half-bought/half-prepared fish stew excellent. He asks how Twinkle prepared it but Twinkle doesn’t remember much. She didn’t note down the ingredients she added. Sanjeev feels that she is a natural-born chef even if she is completely lazy about cooking.

Sanjeev wonders about the guests he has invited, most of whom he's not close to and can't really connect with. None of the guests has ever met Twinkle either. When the guests arrive, Sanjeev introduces Twinkle to them by her formal name Tamina. However, Twinkle soon corrects him and says that she is better known as Twinkle. Sanjeev notices that she soon becomes the limelight of the party, charming all the guests. One of Sanjeev's male friends even calls her "wow." The guests notice the antique pieces on the mantle and ask if Sanjeev is a Christian. Sanjeev denies and says that he is a Hindu but there are many Christians in India. Sanjeev notices that it is not as big of an issue as it appeared to him. His friends are impressed by Twinkle, but he still feels a bit lost. He steals a moment alone in the kitchen. Replenishing the champagne from the cellar, he hears Twinkle explain the figurines and how each day is like a treasure hunt. When the guests learn of the unexpected discovery of Christian artifacts, they form a search party, eventually reaching the attic, where a new discovery is made: a solid silver bust of Christ, weighing a good 30 pounds. 

Meanwhile, Sanjeev feels alone and lonely in his own home. He fantasizes about removing the ladder and truly having the house to himself. He thinks of sweeping the figurines off of the mantle and into the trash in silence. In fact, he's regretting the fact that he never accepted one of the other potential brides his mother suggested (via airmailed photos), women who could cook, clean, and sew. He rather chose to meet Twinkle, and now he is married to her. He decides to go to the bedroom as he feels the party is over for him. He notices Twinkle’s shoes outside the doorway. He never liked her heels but now, her shoes offer him a tender feeling. He imagines Twinkle putting them on and rushing everywhere to tend to their guests. It reminds him of the anticipation he would feel before one of their long talks when she was still living in Stanford.

Twinkle comes down with the silver bust of Christ and requests Sanjeev to let her put the bust on the mantle for the night. She promises she will shift the bust to her study room the very next morning. Instead of arguing with her, Sanjeev smiles and helps her placing the heavy silver bust carefully on the mantle. He joins the party again. He realizes that the bust will never go to Twinkle’s study room and she will continue to explain why the bust is on the mantle to the guests who will keep coming, in their many years together. 

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Indian English literature. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!

Language of Paradox | The Well Wrought Urn by Cleanth Brooks | Summary, Explanation

 

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Cleanth Brooks was a prominent figure in American literary criticism, particularly known for his contributions to the New Criticism movement. His works emphasize the importance of close reading and the intrinsic qualities of the text itself. He believed that the meaning of a literary work should not be sorted out from the sources which are outside the text such as the historical background in which the text was written or the author’s intention while writing the text. He is mostly known for his book –

The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry (1947):

It is a pivotal work by Cleanth Brooks, published in 1947. This book is considered a cornerstone of the New Criticism movement, which emphasizes close reading and the analysis of literary texts without considering external factors like authorial intent or historical context. The title of the book ‘The Well Wrought Urn’ is an allusion to the fourth stanza of John Donne's poem, "The Canonization", which is the primary subject of the first chapter of the book.

The book is a collection of eleven essays or chapters. In the eleventh chapter, titled The Heresy of Paraphrase, Brooks offers a polemic against the use of paraphrasing in describing and criticizing a poem. 

The first chapter of the book is titled The Language of Paradox. The first chapter and the Eleventh chapter (The Heresy of Paraphrase) offer the key concepts developed by Cleanth Brooks that had a lasting impact on literary studies, shaping how poetry is taught and analyzed in academic settings. It encourages readers to engage deeply with texts, fostering a greater appreciation for the art of poetry.

In these eleven essays, Brooks argues that the structure of a poem is integral to its meaning. He believes that form and content are inseparable, and understanding one requires a deep engagement with the other. The book includes detailed commentaries on several classic poems, allowing readers to see how Brooks applies his critical approach (new criticism). He examines works by poets such as John Donne, William Wordsworth, and John Keats. One of Brooks's central ideas is that poetry creates a unified experience. He explores how various elements of a poem—such as imagery, sound, and rhythm—work together to produce a cohesive emotional and intellectual effect.

The Language of Paradox:

The first essay in The Well Wrought Urn by Cleanth Brooks is titled "The Language of Paradox." In this essay, Brooks explores the use of paradox in poetry, arguing that it is a fundamental aspect of poetic language that enhances meaning and emotional depth.

Brooks defines paradox as a statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth. He emphasizes that paradox is not merely a rhetorical device but a crucial element that reflects the complexities of human experience.

The essay can be simplified in majorly two major points. Firstly, since we are not going for the meaning of a work from outside the text, there should be something inside the text. William Empson gave the idea of ambiguity within the text. Cleanth Brooks added to it the idea of Paradox. Cleanth Brooks believes that we are supposed to learn or look into the Paradoxes in the verse, to understand the poem better. Secondly, he also differentiates between the language of science and the language of poetry, suggesting that while paradoxes are appropriate and inevitable for poetry, we do not use paradoxes in daily life or scientific statements that rely on facts.

What is Paradox:

A Paradox is simply a self-contradictory statement or situation. It is a statement that contradicts itself, that is, two opposite ideas are put together in the same sentence. For example, if I say that ‘I always lie’, it is a paradox. If I always lie, it is also a lie. Some other examples are –

‘All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” (‘Animal Farm’, George Orwell)

‘Death, though shalt die” (‘Death, be not proud, John Donne)

“Child is the father of the man.” (My Heart Leaps Up’, William Wordsworth)

While these statements appear self-contradictory, there is a deeper, hidden meaning in them.

Cleanth Brooks begins the essay by saying ‘The language of poetry is the language of paradox.’ He then explains that often we try to avoid paradoxes because of our preconceived notions. We believe that ‘Paradox is the language of sophistry, hard, bright, witty, it is hardly the language of the soul.” He elaborates that ‘we regard paradox as an intellectual element rather than emotional, clever rather than profound, rational rather than irrational.’ However, Paradox is appropriate and inevitable for poetry. He says that paradox not only suits poetry, it is inevitable, one cannot take out paradox from poetry.

A poet requires more than language to convey their message and paradox becomes an essential tool to be used in poetry. To prove his point, he offers certain examples.

The very first example he offers is William Wordsworth’s poem ‘Composed Upon Westminster Bridge’. This example is important because Wordsworth always stressed simplicity and focused on the common day life. Brooks says that even though Wordsworth insisted on simplicity, his poems are full of paradoxical situations.

In the poem ‘Composed upon Westminster Bridge’, the poet describes the beauty of the city of London in the poem as he sees while walking through Westminster Bridge. While London is clearly an artificial, man-made city, Wordsworth talks about it as if it naturally occurred, or it is a part of nature. This suggests a paradox, even though the city of London is artificial, Wordsworth talks about it as if it is a natural landscape.

Brooks takes the second example from Wordsworth’s other poem ‘It is a Beauteous evening, calm, and free.’

In the poem, Wordsworth describes the evening with words calm, quiet, and tranquility aligning with breathless, which is a paradox. If the evening is calm, how can it be breathless? Furthermore, the poet begins the poem by expressing himself as a great admirer and worshiper of nature who is touched by the tranquility of the evening. However, he notices that his companion girl, supposedly his nine-year-old daughter Caroline Vallon is not that affected by the tranquility of nature, suggesting that he is filled with nature worship while his daughter is untouched by the magic of nature. However, by the end, he establishes that being a child, Caroline Vallon is closer to nature, much more filled with nature than himself. That children are more natural than the adults. Thus, the poem as a whole offers a paradox.

Brooks also mentioned a poem from the Neo-Classical period, especially mentioning Essay on Man by Alexander Pope, explaining the use of Paradox within the text. Another major example Brooks uses is that of John Donne’s poem The Canonization. Brook says that Donne makes use of a paradox as an underlined metaphor. In the poem, the speaker describes his physical love (sexual urge as saintly). However, saints are supposed to avoid physical love. Yet, the speaker describes the physical love as saintly and asserts that the two lovers are appropriate for the canonization, and to be adorned as saints. So there are love and religion intertwined together, and it is a complex conceit. The speaker claims that the lovers are unworldly because they have lost their world in each other. However, by the end of the poem, it becomes clear that they have not lost the world, rather they have gained each other’s worlds in each other’s eyes, and thus, they are most worldly of all.

Brooks offers a similar paradox from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and then he mentions Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s Biographia Literaria in which Coleridge offered his ideas on creative imagination. Brooks says that Coleridge explains the idea of ‘creative imagination’ to his readers by using a series of paradoxes.

Why Do Poets Use Paradoxes or Why Paradoxes cannot be avoided in Poetry?

Brooks says that ‘Paradoxes spring from the very nature of poets language – a language in which connotations are as important as denotations. A poet tries to convey multiple meanings within a few words, and paradox helps in that. In writing poems, the paradox is used as a method by which unlikely comparisons can be drawn and meaning can be extracted from poems both directly and indirectly. There will be a literal meaning and a hidden meaning which the reader will understand through the paradox.

The Language of Poetry and Language of Science

He then offers the differentiation between the language of the poem and the language of science. He says that when one is talking about science, or daily life based on facts, they cannot simply use paradox because it will create confusion. They need to state the facts as they are. Contradictions cannot exist in science of daily routine because contradictions will create confusion and everyone will try to remove those contradictions, that is the purpose of science. Science uses direct language. Science has a tendency to keep words strictly in control and stick to the dictionary meaning. A scientist wishes to avoid and eradicate ambiguity and contradictions.

But when it is poetry and art, paradox is inevitable. Art can never be direct. The terms in poetry modify each other and also violate their dictionary meaning. A Poet constructs his own language, he defines his own rules. So poet has control over language. He is not limited to the denotations of words but instead explores the possible connotations. If a blue litmus becomes red, it is definitely Acid. However, a change to purple or red in poetry may convey anger, shame, enthusiasm, and so many other emotions. Unlike the scientist, who seeks to cleanse his work of all ambiguity, the poet thrives on it because with it he can better express experience.

While New Criticism gained supremacy in the literary arena during the 1960s and 70s, the New Critics also faced harsh criticism. Ronald Crane, one of the Neo-Aristotelian critics belonging to the Chicago School of Literary Criticism was specifically harsh against Cleanth Brooks and his idea of paradox and language of poetry. In his essay "The Critical Monism of Cleanth Brooks," Crane writes that under Brooks's view of a poem's unity being achieved through the irony and paradox of the opposing forces it contains, the world's most perfect example of such an ironic poem would be Albert Einstein's equation E=mc2, which equates matter and energy at a constant rate. He says that Brooks ignores all the other elements of poetry in his analysis and Brooks also ignores the power of paradox in other discourses other than poetry.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss literary theory and literary criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and regards!