Hello and welcome to the Discourse. William Empson (1906-1984) was a highly influential English literary critic and poet, renowned for his contributions to literary theory and criticism, particularly in the context of New Criticism. Empson is best known for his practice of close reading, which involves a detailed analysis of texts to uncover deeper meanings and ambiguities. This method became a cornerstone of New Criticism, emphasizing the text itself over authorial intent or historical context. However, Empson himself didn’t adhere to any school of literary criticism. He criticized the school of New Criticism as "the new rigor", a "campaign to make poetry as dull as possible" (in his book Essays on Renaissance Literature Vol.1). He particularly criticized William K. Wimsatt’s idea of Intentional Fallacy. Despite that, William Empson and his works continued to influence and shape the ideas of New Criticism as an influential school of literary theory and criticism.
Major Works of William Empson:
Milton’s God:
Milton’s God is a significant work by William Empson, published in 1961. In this book, Empson explores the complexities of John Milton's portrayal of God in his epic poem "Paradise Lost." The book is an example of close reading because it analyzes the Christian God through the lens of Empson's extreme rationalism. Rather than being influenced by the religious ethos, Empson paid close interest to the text of the epic and on the details of the passage, such as the words, syntax, and sentence structure. In addition, he also emphasized how the passage is said, in addition to what is said. In Milton’s God, Empson critically examines how Milton's depiction of God reflects a tension between traditional Christian beliefs and Milton's own rationalist views. He argues that Milton's God is not a straightforward representation of the Christian deity but rather embodies contradictions and complexities. Empson's extreme rationalism leads him to question the positive valuation of the Christian God, suggesting that Paradise Lost reveals an underlying unease with the nature of divinity as traditionally understood. Satan in Paradise Lost faced a choice of whether he should submit to the will of god or he should be his own hero. He was close to God and wanted to submit but there was a clash between the authority of God and his own desires of success, and progress. In the poem, if the reader ignores Milton’s view and the Christian ideology, they will face the same dilemma that Satan faced, if he accepts and submits to God’s will, he will have to lose his desires and needs. He was the archangel, supreme of all the rest. He had to choose, if he adhered to God’s will, he knew he wouldn’t remain superior. Thus he made his choice and declared, “Better to rule in hell than be slave in heaven.”
Empson also attributed a rival interpretive tradition dating to the Romantic poets (esp. William Blake). In Empson’s interpretation, Milton portrayed God as a villain and gave Satan all the proper virtues of a classical epic hero. In The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790-93), Blake declared that Milton was “a true Poet and of the Devil’s party without knowing it.” Echoing Blake, Empson stated, “The reason why the poem [i.e. Paradise Lost] is so good is that it makes God so bad.”
Seven Types of Ambiguity:
William Empson’s Seven Types of Ambiguity is an analysis of Poetic Ambivalence.
Seven Types of Ambiguity is a significant work of literary criticism by William Empson, first published in 1930. This book is considered one of the most influential critical works of the 20th century and played a crucial role in the development of New Criticism. In this work, Empson explores the concept of ambiguity in poetry and literature, categorizing it into seven distinct types. His analysis aims to enhance the reader's understanding of a poem by isolating the linguistic properties of the text.
Empson suggested that the words or references in a poem are often ambiguous. He says that each word, phrase, and text in a poem can be interpreted in more than one way. He highlighted seven types of ambiguity that are commonly found in poetic verses.
Ambiguity of Meaning: This type arises when a word or phrase has multiple meanings, leading to different interpretations.
Ambiguity of Reference: This occurs when it is unclear what a word or phrase refers to within the context of the text.
Ambiguity of Tone: This type involves uncertainty about the speaker's attitude or emotional state.
Ambiguity of Structure: This arises from the way a sentence or phrase is constructed, which can lead to multiple interpretations.
Ambiguity of Context: This type is related to the broader context in which a text is situated, affecting its interpretation.
Ambiguity of Intention: This involves uncertainty about the author's purpose or intention behind a particular choice of words or themes. Two words that are opposites within context expose a fundamental division in the author's mind.
Ambiguity of Form refers to the interplay between the text's form and its content, leading to various interpretations.
He further elaborated on the use of metaphors, antithesis, and allegory, which enriches ambiguity in the text.
Ambiguity of Metaphor: Empson identifies metaphor as a significant source of ambiguity, particularly in how it allows for multiple interpretations. The concept is similar to that of Metaphysical conceit. Metaphor is used to correlate two unrelated things with different properties. For example, James Joyce in Ulysses says ‘History is a nightmare from which I am trying to wake.” The author is comparing history and nightmare. So according to James Joyce, history and nightmares share certain similarities and that is why he is putting them together in a metaphor. But for the reader, the statement will appear confusing and ambiguous. If history is like a nightmare, then there must be a lot of similarities between history and a nightmare, which suggests that all history is nightmarish, harrowing, and sad. But history can be beautiful, and memorable too. As in William Wordsworth’s poems, the speaker keeps taking inspiration from the memories of his past. Thus, the metaphor comparing history and nightmare offers a lot of ambiguity. Because of this ambiguity, a lot of different interpretations can come from the same statement by James Joyce (History is a nightmare from which I am trying to wake.) The same statement will mean different for different readers. Some may agree, with it, some may disagree, and some may ridicule it. However, this ambiguity is not associated with all phrases. If someone says ‘The sun rises in the east,’ it means the same for everyone.
Ambiguity of Antithesis: Empson describes antithesis as a rhetorical device that juxtaposes contrasting ideas or phrases. This contrast can create a tension that invites various interpretations. Antithesis is the use of contrasting concepts. For example, Hamlet says, ‘To be or Not to Be.’ The ambiguity of antithesis arises when the opposing elements are not merely in conflict but also interact in a way that enriches the text. This interaction can lead to a deeper understanding of the themes and emotions being conveyed.
Ambiguity of Allegory: Empson defines allegory as a narrative technique in which characters, events, and details symbolize broader concepts and ideas. This layered meaning can lead to multiple interpretations, as the allegorical elements may resonate differently with various readers. In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the totalitarianism of Soviet Russia had been allegorized. A reader, who disregards the historical context, will face an interpretive puzzle in the text.
Some other important works by William Empson include Some Versions of Pastoral (1935), Using Biography (1985), Faustus and the Censor (1987), and Essays on Renaissance Literature: Volume 1, 2 (1993, 94).
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of Literary theory and criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
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