Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Philip Sidney's The Defence of Poesy (also known as An Apology for Poetry) is one of the most important works of literary criticism from the English Renaissance. Written around 1580 (published posthumously in 1595), it defends poetry against Puritan and Platonic criticisms, arguing for its moral and educational value. Sidney’s defense celebrates poetry’s ability to inspire, teach, and elevate the human spirit. In this work, Sidney highlights Humanist ideals while merging Aristotelian mimesis (imitation) with Horatian dulce et utile (delight and instruction), emphasizing poetry’s role in shaping virtuous citizens. He aligns poetry with divine inspiration (e.g., Biblical psalms), countering Puritan claims. While examining the Puritanical objections against poetry and drama (Poetry corrupts), Sidney shifts the accusation and claims that abuse comes from bad poets, not poetry itself (just as a sword’s misuse doesn’t condemn the weapon). He laments the poor state of English literature during his time, criticizing unrhymed, verbose translations and clumsy dramatic conventions that ignore the unities of time and space while mixing comedy and tragedy without purpose. Yet, he praises Gorboduc (early English tragedy) and Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde.
Purpose and Historical Context
Philip Sidney wrote An Apology for Poetry (also known as The Defence of Poesy) around 1580, though it was published posthumously in 1595. The work was composed in response to the growing Puritan criticism of literature, particularly attacks from figures like Stephen Gosson, whose polemic The School of Abuse (1579) condemned poetry as immoral and frivolous. Sidney, a prominent Elizabethan courtier and poet, sought to defend poetry not only against Puritan moralists but also against the classical objections raised by Plato, who had banished poets from his ideal republic for promoting falsehoods.
Sidney’s Apology is structured as a classical oration, blending logical argumentation with eloquent persuasion. He begins by humorously noting society’s hypocrisy—while many scorn poetry, they still enjoy its pleasures. He then defines poetry as an art of imitation, where the poet, acting as a "maker," creates idealized worlds that surpass nature. Unlike historians, who are bound by facts, or philosophers, who deal in abstract precepts, poets combine the best of both, presenting universal truths in an engaging and memorable form. Sidney argues that poetry’s true purpose is to teach virtue by delighting the reader, thereby inspiring moral action more effectively than dry philosophy or amoral history. He refutes the claim that poetry is mere deception by asserting that poets never pretend their fictions are real—rather, they use imaginative storytelling to convey deeper truths.
Structure and Rhetorical Strategy:
The Apology follows a carefully crafted rhetorical structure, mirroring classical models of persuasion. Sidney opens with an exordium (introduction), using wit and anecdote to engage his audience. He then provides a narratio, offering a historical overview of poetry’s esteemed role in ancient cultures, from Greek epics to Biblical psalms. His propositio asserts poetry’s superiority over history and philosophy, while the confirmatio elaborates on this claim with examples from literature. In the refutatio, he systematically dismantles opposing arguments, such as the charge that poetry corrupts morals, by shifting blame to bad poets rather than the art itself. Finally, his peroratio concludes with a passionate appeal for the recognition of poetry’s divine and civilizing power. This structured approach not only strengthens his argument but also demonstrates the very rhetorical excellence he champions.
One of the central themes in Sidney’s Apology is the didactic function of poetry. Drawing on Horace’s dulce et utile (sweet and useful), he insists that poetry must both please and instruct, making moral lessons palatable through beauty and emotion. He also emphasizes the poet’s role as a creator, akin to a "second God," who improves upon nature by presenting idealized versions of reality. This Neoplatonic idea elevates poetry to a near-divine art form, capable of revealing higher truths.
Philip Sidney’s Rebuttal of The School of Abuse in The Defence of Poesy:
Philip Sidney's An Apology for Poetry stands as a masterful counterargument to the Puritanical attacks on literature, particularly those leveled by Stephen Gosson in The School of Abuse (1579). Gosson, a former playwright turned moralist, had condemned poetry as morally corrupting, intellectually frivolous, and fundamentally deceptive. Sidney's defense systematically dismantles these accusations while elevating poetry to its rightful place as the highest form of artistic and moral expression. His rebuttal is structured around several key arguments that not only refute Gosson's claims but also redefine the very purpose and value of literature in society.
Against the Charge that Poetry is Immoral:
One of Gosson's primary accusations was that poetry and drama promote immoral behavior by depicting vice in appealing ways. Sidney counters this by drawing a crucial distinction between the abuse of poetry and its proper use. He argues that just as a sword can be used for both justice and murder, poetry's value depends on how it is employed. The fault lies not with the art form itself but with those who misuse it. Moreover, Sidney contends that great poetry, from Homer's epics to Virgil's Aeneid, has always served to inspire virtue by presenting noble examples of heroism and moral fortitude. Even when poetry depicts vice, it often does so to demonstrate its consequences, as in tragedies where hubris leads to downfall. Far from corrupting its audience, poetry, when properly composed, has the unique power to move readers toward virtuous action by making moral lessons emotionally compelling.
Against the Charge that Poetry is a Waste of Time:
Gosson's second major charge was that poetry is an idle pastime that distracts from more serious intellectual pursuits. Sidney dismantles this argument by positioning poetry as the foundation of all learning. He reminds his readers that before the advent of formal philosophy or historiography, ancient cultures relied on poetry to transmit wisdom and preserve cultural memory. Sidney stresses the importance of poetry by stating that no nation is without poetry and asserting that it has been “the first light-giver to ignorance.” The ancient Greeks and Romans had great reverence for the poets. The Romans called him Vates, which means a Prophet or a Foreseer, while the Greeks honoured him as Poiein, i.e., maker or creator. The Psalms of David, Solomon’s Song of Songs, the works of Hesiod, and the parables of Christ all demonstrate poetry's capacity to convey profound truths. Sidney further argues that poetry surpasses both history and philosophy in its ability to instruct. While history is limited to recording specific facts—including both virtuous and vicious deeds—and philosophy deals in abstract principles that often fail to engage the imagination, poetry combines the concrete appeal of narrative with the universal insights of philosophy. The poet, as a "maker," creates idealized worlds that reveal not just what is, but what ought to be, offering readers a vision of moral excellence that is both instructive and inspiring.
Against the Charge that Poetry is Deceptive:
Another of Gosson's criticisms was that poetry is inherently deceptive, filled with fictions and falsehoods that lead readers astray. Sidney's response to this charge is particularly nuanced. He acknowledges that poetry deals in fiction but argues that these fictions are not lies in the ordinary sense. No one reads Aesop's fables or Christ's parables under the illusion that they are literal truth; rather, their value lies in the deeper moral and spiritual truths they convey. Sidney even turns the tables on Plato, who had banished poets from his ideal republic for their deceptiveness, by pointing out that Plato himself used myths and allegories to teach philosophical truths. If poetry is guilty of deception, Sidney suggests, it is a noble deception—one that serves the higher purpose of moral and spiritual enlightenment. He further underscores this point by noting that the Bible itself employs poetic language, from the Psalms to the prophetic books, demonstrating that divine truth can be communicated through the very medium that Gosson condemns as false.
Against the Charge that Poetry Corrupts Society:
Finally, Gosson argued that poetry and theater corrupt society by encouraging idleness, lust, and disorder. Sidney responds by emphasizing the cultural necessity of poetry. Great civilizations, from Athens to Rome, revered their poets, and their literary traditions were integral to their moral and political flourishing. The problem, Sidney contends, is not poetry itself but the proliferation of bad poetry—works that lack artistic merit or moral purpose. The solution, therefore, is not to abolish poetry but to cultivate better poets who can harness the power of the art form for virtuous ends. Sidney also warns that without poetry, society would turn to baser forms of entertainment, leaving people spiritually and intellectually impoverished. Poetry, in his view, is not a frivolous diversion but a vital force that refines human passions, fosters empathy, and strengthens the moral fabric of society.
Conception of Poetry in An Apology for Poetry:
Sidney's conception of poetry builds upon Aristotelian mimesis while infusing it with Renaissance humanist values. He describes poetry as "an art of imitation," but significantly qualifies this imitation as selective and purposeful. The poet doesn't merely copy reality but judiciously represents it to highlight universal moral truths. This transformative imitation allows poetry to surpass both history and philosophy in its pedagogical effectiveness. Where historians must record events as they occurred (including both virtuous and vicious acts) and philosophers deal in difficult abstractions, poets combine the concrete appeal of narrative with philosophical wisdom. Sidney argues this fusion creates poetry's unique power to "teach and delight" simultaneously, making moral lessons not just comprehensible but emotionally compelling.
He positions poetry as fundamentally didactic, though its instruction comes clothed in beauty and pleasure. The poet becomes a moral architect, presenting virtue in her most attractive form and vice as truly repugnant. This ethical imperative distinguishes true poetry from mere versification. Sidney further legitimizes poetry by tracing its lineage to divine inspiration, noting how biblical texts like David's Psalms employ poetic form to convey spiritual truths. He establishes an unbroken tradition linking ancient seers (vates) with contemporary poets, arguing that poetry's civilizing function predates and undergirds philosophy, law, and other intellectual disciplines.
Classification of Poetry:
Philip Sidney, in An Apology for Poetry, not only defends poetry against its detractors but also provides a systematic classification of poetic forms, emphasizing their moral and aesthetic functions. His taxonomy reflects Renaissance humanist values, blending classical traditions with contemporary Elizabethan literary practice. Sidney categorizes poetry based on its subject matter, form, and purpose, ultimately demonstrating its versatility and superiority over other arts.
Divine Poetry: The Highest Form
At the summit of Sidney's poetic hierarchy stands divine poetry, which he presents as the most exalted form of verbal art. This category encompasses biblical psalms, prophetic writings, and sacred hymns - works that Sidney argues possess a spiritual authority rivaling scripture itself. By connecting poetry to divine revelation (citing David as the "psalmist" and the ancients' concept of the poet as "vates" or prophet), Sidney counters Puritan accusations of frivolity, instead positioning poetry as a vessel of transcendent truth.
Philosophical or Didactic Poetry:
Sidney's second major category, philosophical and didactic poetry, demonstrates his humanist commitment to poetry's educational function. This broad classification includes heroic epics like Virgil's Aeneid, moral allegories such as Hesiod's Works and Days, and ethical treatises in verse form. What distinguishes these works is their ability to make abstract philosophical concepts concrete and compelling through narrative and imagery. Sidney particularly values how heroic poetry (epics) presents idealized virtues in action, creating exemplars that inspire readers to emulation. Unlike dry philosophical discourse, these poetic forms combine wisdom with emotional power, teaching virtue through delight rather than through tedious precept.
Narrative/Imitative Poetry:
The largest and most nuanced category in Sidney's system is imitative poetry, which he divides according to classical genres. Tragedy earns particular praise for its capacity to evoke "admiration and commiseration" through depicting the falls of great men, thereby teaching sober lessons about hubris and fortune. Comedy receives more qualified approval, with Sidney endorsing satirical works that correct folly through wit while warning against mere buffoonery. Lyric poetry - including sonnets, odes, and songs - is valued for its musicality and emotional authenticity, though Sidney insists even personal lyrics should maintain moral purpose. Elegiac verse, with its themes of loss and meditation, falls under Sidney’s broader category of lyric poetry, which he praises for its emotional power and musicality. Even sorrowful poetry must "teach and delight"—elegy should not wallow but transform grief into wisdom.
Historical poetry in verse form occupies an ambiguous position, praised for making the past vivid but cautioned against becoming mired in mere factuality.
Pastoral Poetry:
Sidney's treatment of pastoral poetry reveals his sophisticated understanding of literary artifice. Though ostensibly simple verses about rural life, works like Virgil's Eclogues function for Sidney as subtle commentaries on complex social and moral issues. The pastoral mode's apparent artlessness becomes a virtue, allowing profound truths to emerge through humble metaphors. This category demonstrates Sidney's key principle that poetry's value lies not in superficial subject matter but in its capacity to convey universal wisdom through particular images.
Satirical Poetry:
The final significant category in Sidney's system is satirical poetry, which he approaches with cautious admiration. While approving of satire's corrective function in exposing vice and folly, Sidney establishes clear boundaries between proper satirical critique and mere malicious mockery. Iambic verse (traditionally associated with invective and satire) aligns with Sidney’s cautious approval of corrective ridicule. True satire must be grounded in moral purpose and executed with artistic control, aiming to reform rather than simply ridicule. This careful distinction reflects Sidney's broader insistence that all legitimate poetry, regardless of genre, must ultimately serve ethical improvement.
Criticism:
In An Apology for Poetry, Sidney laments the decline of poetry and drama in his own time, identifying several key reasons for this deterioration. First, he observes that contemporary poets lack the inspired, passionate spirit essential for true poetic creation. Their work suffers from a deficiency of both knowledge and proper training, as they fail to study and emulate classical models. Sidney emphasizes that poetic genius is not innate but cultivated through diligent study and practice, famously asserting that "even the fertiliest ground must be manured." He criticizes poets for their ignorance of the technical intricacies of their art, which prevents them from achieving excellence.
Regarding drama, Sidney applies rigorous classical standards, arguing that tragedy should evoke Aristotelian pity and awe while demonstrating the downfall of tyrants. He particularly condemns the crude mixing of genres, such as blending tragic and comic elements, as well as the inappropriate use of music and buffoonery in serious scenes. Sidney insists on adherence to the classical unities of time, place, and action: the plot should unfold within a single day ("a single revolution of the sun"), maintain one primary setting, and clearly establish locations through dialogue. While he praises Gorboduc (1561) by Norton and Sackville for its dignified style, he faults it for violating these unities. Among English poets, he commends Gower and Chaucer, especially for Troilus and Criseyde, as models worth emulating.
Sidney also makes a crucial distinction between delight and laughter in poetry. He defines delight as a lasting, elevated pleasure, while laughter offers only temporary amusement. True poetic delight, he argues, can exist independently of crude humor. When comedy does provoke laughter, it should target human weaknesses and follies constructively, fostering self-knowledge and moral improvement rather than inflicting pain or engaging in mean-spirited mockery. Through this critique, Sidney not only diagnoses the flaws of Elizabethan poetry and drama but also prescribes a return to disciplined, principled artistry rooted in classical tradition and moral purpose.
So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of English Literary Criticism. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards!
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