Roman Jakobson | Functions of Language | Metaphor/Metonymy Model | Russian Formalism

Roman Jakobson | Functions of Language | Metaphor/Metonymy Model | Russian Formalism

Hello and welcome to the Discourse. Roman Jakobson (1896–1982) was a Russian-American linguist, literary theorist, and a key figure in Russian Formalism and Structuralism. His work bridged linguistics, poetics, semiotics, and communication theory, influencing literary criticism, anthropology, and cognitive science. Roman Jakobson's intellectual journey unfolded across three major linguistic circles, each representing a distinct phase in the development of structuralist thought. In Moscow (1915-1920), as a co-founder of the Moscow Linguistic Circle, Jakobson and his fellow Russian Formalists revolutionized literary analysis by focusing on the concept of literariness - what makes poetic language distinct from ordinary speech. The Prague Linguistic Circle (1926-1939) marked Jakobson's maturation as a structural linguist. Here, alongside scholars like Nikolai Trubetzkoy, he developed groundbreaking phonological theories, particularly the concept of distinctive features that would later influence Chomsky's generative grammar. The Prague Circle's functional approach to language as a dynamic, purpose-driven system represented a significant evolution from the more text-focused Moscow Formalism. Jakobson's final intellectual home was the Linguistic Circle of New York during the 1940s-1950s, where his ideas achieved their fullest interdisciplinary expression. In this American phase, he bridged European structuralism with emerging American linguistic anthropology, collaborating with figures like Claude Lévi-Strauss. His New York period produced some of his most influential concepts, including the six functions of language model and his groundbreaking analysis of aphasia through the lens of metaphor and metonymy (Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic axis).

Hist two important books are "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances" (1956); in which he distinguished between metaphor and metonymy as fundamental linguistic operations, and "Linguistics and Poetics" (1960); in which he developed the six functions of language, a foundational model in communication theory.

Important Ideas of Roman Jakobson: Metaphor/Metonymy Model

Aphasia is a language disorder that impairs a person's ability to speak, understand, read, or write, while intelligence remains intact. Roman Jakobson linked aphasia to his metaphor/metonymy model, showing how some patients lose the ability to substitute words (metaphor/selection) while others struggle to combine them (metonymy/combination).  In his seminal work "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances" (1956), he proposed that aphasia manifests in two fundamental forms, each corresponding to a breakdown in one of language's two core operations: selection (paradigmatic axis) and combination (syntagmatic axis). These two are binary oppositions.

Roman Jakobson's structuralist theory presents language as operating along two fundamental axes that shape how we produce and interpret meaning. The paradigmatic axis represents the vertical dimension of language, where we select words from a set of possible alternatives that share some relationship of similarity. This mental process of choosing between equivalent options - deciding whether to say "happy," "joyful," or "ecstatic" - underlies our capacity for metaphorical thinking. When we employ metaphor, we substitute one concept for another based on perceived resemblances, as in Shakespeare's famous line "All the world's a stage," where the abstract notion of life is understood through the concrete image of theatrical performance.

In the sentence "The ___ barked loudly,” possible selections can be dog, wolf, fox, puppy (all members of the "canine" paradigm). The choice of "dog" over "wolf" changes the image in the listener's mind.

The line "The night was dark and silent" can have various alternatives, such as "The night was black and hushed," or "The evening was shadowy and still." Instead of saying, "She is very intelligent," we may say, "She is a walking encyclopedia."

The syntagmatic axis constitutes the horizontal dimension of language, governing how we combine selected words into coherent sequences according to grammatical rules and contextual logic. This combinatory process relies on relationships of contiguity - the spatial, temporal, or causal connections between elements. Metonymy operates through this same principle of association, allowing us to refer to concepts through their contextual links, as when we say "The White House announced" to mean the U.S. president. In narrative forms like novels or films, this syntagmatic axis dominates as events unfold through cause-and-effect chains and temporal progression. A story unfolds through syntagmatic sequencing, for example, "The king died. Then, the queen died of grief." Here, the order matters—reversing it ("The queen died of grief. Then, the king died.") changes the meaning. The syntagmatic axis represents the horizontal dimension, where words are chained together in a meaningful order. The words (cat, sat, mat, on, the) can be arranged in any order. Correct syntagmatic combination: "The cat sat on the mat." Grammatically incorrect, but poetically possible arrangement can be "On the mat the cat sat." Nonsensical arrangement suggesting Syntagmetic breakdown is "Mat the sat cat on," it makes no sense at all.

Jakobson's framework reveals how these two axes interact dynamically in all forms of communication. While poetry tends to foreground the paradigmatic through dense metaphorical language that invites comparison between disparate concepts, prose typically emphasizes the syntagmatic through its linear narrative development. Even in visual media, we can observe this duality: a film might employ metaphorical imagery through careful selection of symbolic shots while simultaneously advancing its story through their sequential combination. This structural approach demonstrates how meaning emerges not from isolated elements but from their relational patterns within a system.

Six Functions of Language:

Roman Jakobson's six functions of language provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how communication operates across different contexts. Developed in 1960, this model identifies six distinct purposes embedded in every speech act, each tied to a specific component of the communication process. These functions demonstrate that meaning is not just about the content of a message, but also about its relationship to the speaker, listener, and context.

The referential function dominates factual exchanges where the primary focus is on conveying information about the world. For instance, when a weather forecaster states, "Tomorrow's high will be 75 degrees," they are using language referentially. Another example can be, "Water boils at 100°C." In contrast, the emotive or expressive function reveals the speaker's inner state, as when someone exclaims, "I'm absolutely furious!" - here, the emphasis isn't on objective facts but on emotional expression. A similar example is "I’m thrilled about the trip!"

The conative function comes into play when language aims to influence the receiver, whether through polite requests ("Could you close the window?", "Pass the salt, please.") or direct commands ("Stop!").

Two often-overlooked but crucial functions are the phatic and metalingual. Phatic communication serves to establish or maintain social connections rather than exchange meaningful content - greetings like "How are you?" (or "Hey, what’s up?") or casual remarks about the weather typically serve this purpose. The metalingual function allows us to discuss language itself, enabling clarification and learning through questions like "What does this word mean?" or "What does ‘paradigm’ mean?"

Finally, the poetic function foregrounds the aesthetic qualities of language, where the form of the message becomes as important as its content. Roman Jakobson's poetic function emphasizes the aesthetic dimension of language, where the form of the message becomes as significant as its content. Unlike referential communication focused on information, this function highlights patterns like rhyme, rhythm, and wordplay to create an artistic effect. Examples include poetry ("The fog comes / on little cat feet" or "She sells seashells by the seashore"), advertising slogans ("Snap, Crackle, Pop!"), or even political rhetoric using repetition for impact ("Yes we can"). The poetic function operates by drawing attention to language itself, transforming ordinary speech into art. Jakobson argued that this function isn't limited to literature but permeates all communication where form enhances meaning. Poetic function foregrounds language's form through devices like rhythm and metaphor, making expression vivid and unconventional. This aligns with Russian Formalism's defamiliarization (ostranenie) - art's role in refreshing perception by making the familiar strange. Both concepts emphasize how artistic language disrupts automatic interpretation, demanding active engagement from the reader.

Jakobson's model reveals that most utterances combine multiple functions, though one usually dominates. A simple statement like "It's cold in here" might simultaneously convey factual information (referential), express discomfort (emotive), and hint at a request to close a window (conative). This multifaceted approach to language analysis continues to influence fields from linguistics to media studies, demonstrating how communication serves diverse human needs through a single, flexible system.

So this is it for today. We will continue to discuss the history of the evolution of Literary theories. Please stay connected with the Discourse. Thanks and Regards.